Charles Dickens builds Essay

Great Expectations is a play written by the famous novelist Charles Dickens in the mid 1800’s. Great expectations is set in the early Victorian times this was a time were great social changes took place. This was when there were big differences between the rich and the poor and if you did not have money, you were not treated the same way as if you did. Charles Dickens tried to educate the poor about the differences in society and the divides between rich and poor through his novel. Books in those days were accounted as luxuries and only the rich had luxuries as they could afford them, therefore the poor people never got to read the books that were published. Charles Dickens on the other hand wrote his whole novel in parts, these were then published in a weekly magazine called â€Å"All The Year Round† Dickens may have done this so that both the rich and the poor could read his novel. Great expectations is all about a little poor orphan called Pip and how his life is changed from being poor to rich, throughout the play we see Pip change as in the middle of the play he becomes a person of great expectations as a unnamed benefactor (Abel Magwitch) pays for him to be a gentleman. The novel Great expectations tends to reflect the life of Charles Dickens himself and is fairly autobiographical as at a very young age Charles was sent to a blacking factory as his father was deeply in debt due to this Dickens’s whole family went to debtors prison. Charles was then sent off to work in a blacking factory to pay off his father’s debts. Later on in life after Dickens father was released Charles went back to school and as he grew up he finally became a very famous novelist. This reflects on how Pip is a poor orphan who has no money and less if no education is sent to London to become educated and become a gentleman due to an unnamed benefactor. In Great Expectations, Pip is the main character as the whole novel is based around him and his life. He is both the central character, whose actions make up the main plot of the novel, and the narrator, whose thoughts and attitudes make the reader’s view about the story. In the beginning of chapter one, we see Pip standing alone in a marshy churchyard in front of seven gravestones when he suddenly is confronted by Abel Magwitch an big, scary escaped convict who has an iron shackle on one of his legs. Magwitch grabs hold of young Pip and turns him upside down looking for food but only finds a loose crust of bread from within his pockets. Magwitch then threatens Pip by saying to him that he will tell a person that he knows which will grab him and take his liver out wherever he is, if he does not listen to him. Pip is very innocent and naà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ve and believes Magwitch’s threats and in fear accepts the deal of bringing him some food and a file so that he can take the iron shackle off. As Pip returns home and next the day early in the morning gets up to take some food and a file to Magwitch. Whilst Pip is stealing the food and the file we find out the he has a very strong conscience as when he is taking the food out the cupboard he hears voices ‘Mrs Joe wake up wake up’ also when Pip has the left the house and is on the way to marshes he hears the animals the cow the horse saying ‘catch that thief catch that thief’. This makes the opening chapter very interesting and effective as we do not really know much about Pip and we know nothing about Magwitch the escaped convict. Charles Dickens builds up a lot of tension as when Pip is stealing the food we do not know if he is going to make it or if is he going to be caught on the way. Throughout the play Pip changes in character a wide range as first he is a very innocent and kind hearted child and later on in the novel we see a different side of him as when he comes for his sisters funeral he doesn’t want to stay at his old house instead at a posh hotel at this time Pip is a snob and dislikes his family as they do not have social manners and not a lot of money. Pip always had the desire to marry Estella and become a member of a social class by being educated and a gentleman Near the end of the play we see Pip and see what the real important part is being honest and good hearted not rich and arrogant. Magwitch is the second character we meet his entrance is rather dramatic and at first he seems very scary as he is a convict. He threatens Pip to make him do work for him ‘I’ll cut your throat’. Magwitch seemed to be very violent as he grabs hold of Pip and turns him upside down looking for food also he sits Pip on a gravestone and scares him. Magwitch in the first chapters has a very effective effect, as he is criminal and is on the marshes, which indicate that he has escaped this makes him, look even scarier. Also as Magwitch is first introduced ‘he glared and growled’ giving an indication that he was very violent and a dangerous person. We start to see the softer side of Magwitch when he is caught and say that he stole the file and the mince Pie and doesn’t bring Pip into it As the play continued we later find out about more of the softer side of Magwitch and that he really is a good hearted kind person we find out about this when he is revealed to be Pip’s mysterious and unnamed benefactor and the reason for that being was that he gave food to Magwitch when he was on the marshes starving.

Dry Leaves as Sand Substitute for Blocks

Caraga State University Cabadbaran Campus Cabadbaran City Dry Leaves as Sand Substitute for Blocks Submitted by: Dime Rose Diola Jerzeld Villalon Lyka Lou Arogancia Natasha Anne Payot Adviser: Prof. Nathalie Daminar Chapter 1 The Problem Background of the Study A leaf is a lateral photosynthetic appendage of the stem of a plant, commonly broad, flat, thin and of a green color. Leaves (plural) are the â€Å"food factories of plants, the sites where most of the plant’s energy is produced [1]. There are leaves that provide a protective service when a plant is under attack.Leaves may also serve as a storage sites or help obtain food for a plant [2]. For plants, as defense, leaves protect them from enemies such as animals, diseases, and environmental extremes through specific defense mechanism [3]. The most important contributions leaves make to our planet’s ecosystem are through their processing of oxygen and carbon dioxide. Oxygen, though a waste product of photosynthesis is essential to plant, animal, and human survival. As leaves break down carbon dioxide and release oxygen, they also help determine global climate patterns [4].On the other side, a block is a molded rectangular brick of clay or sand enclosed in a molder and hardened for long hours and used as a building and paving material. Bricks were often used for reasons of speed and economy [5]. The researchers aimed to make dry leaves into use not only by preserving it and use as decorations but by making it as one of the main component for concrete blocks. Also, to support the RA 9003 or known as Ecological Solid Waste Management Act for implement. Objectives of the StudyThis study primarily aims to make dry leaves as one of the main component in making concrete blocks to lessen dry leaves in the surroundings since some of us burned dry leaves which disrupt our ecosystem by creating harmful gases through smoke. Since the depletion of the ozone layer is coming to its worst, the researchers fi nd some way to control this problem and to have temporary solution that will lead to a permanent solution on how to lessen dry leaves without burning it or by causing some harm both to the planet and to the people.And to support the waste management campaign in the country. Significance of the Study This study which aimed to find out if the dry leaves can be one of the main components in making blocks is significant to different sectors for various reasons: * Serves as an eye-opener for those who have problems regarding on how to reduce dry leaves in their community/area. * Provides durable and economical product. * Helps in controlling ecological waste. * Provide information to citizens with respect of continuous burning of dry leaves that destroys the planet or causing global warming. * Serve s motivating factor for home owners, construction workers and construction materials manufacturers to strengthen their capabilities for developing blocks and other processes to maximize the u se of dry leaves in the society. Furthermore, the outcome of the study will provide empirical information to policy makers in Ecological Solid Waste Management (RA 9003). Dry leaves are usually burned down elsewhere and eventually produce hazardous gases in the air. Conducting this experiment does not only support RA 9003 but it also opens an avenue to develop technology in bricks in the community.Likewise, this provides all people an opportunity to enjoy living in a clear, clean and hazard-free environment. Scope and Limitation Creating dry leaves as one of the component for concrete blocks is the main concern of this research. This study is limited only in using dry leaves, cement, water and a little use of small stones and if the study is a success, it can be use in constructing buildings. Review of the Related Literature The oldest discovered blocks, originally made from shaped mud and dating to before 7500 B.C and were found at  Tell Aswad, Egypt. The first sun-dry blocks wer e made in Mesopotamia (what is now Iraq), in the ancient city of  Ur  in about 4000  BC, although the arch used for drying the blocks was not actually found. Other examples of civilizations that used mud brick include the  ancient Egyptians  and the Indus[6]. In Europe, blocks were often used for reasons of speed and economy, even in areas where stone was available. The buildings of the Industrial Revolution in Britain were largely constructed of block and timber due to the demand created [7].In  pre-modern China, brick-making or block-making was the job of a lowly and unskilled artisan, but a kiln master was respected as a step above the former [8]. Bricks of concrete with sand aggregate can be made using a simple machine, and a basic assembly line method. A conveyor belt adds the mixture to a machine, which pours a measured amount of concrete into a form. The form is vibrated to remove bubbles. The form is then raised to reveal the wet bricks, spaced out on a plywood s heet. A small elevator then stacks these palettes, after which a forklift operator moves them to the brickyard for drying.Definition of Terms carbon dioxide- a colorless, odorless incombustible gas somewhat heavier than air. In photosynthesis, carbon dioxide and water are absorbed by plants, which synthesize certain carbohydrates and release oxygen into the air. oxygen- odorless, colorless, tasteless, gaseous chemical element that occurs free in the atmosphere. photosynthesis- the production of organic substances, chiefly sugars, from carbon dioxide and water occurring in green plant cells supplied with enough light to allow chlorophyll to aid in the transformation of the radiant energy into a chemical form. zone layer- an atmospheric layer within the atmosphere absorbing ultraviolet radiation and preventing some heat loss from the earth. climate change- is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather  patterns over periods ranging from decades to mi llions of years. kiln- a furnace or oven for drying, burning or baking something as bricks, grain or pottery. Chapter 2 Research Methodology Research Design The researchers will use experimental method wherein the study focuses on the acceptability of the said topic.Several data were gathered before coming up with a procedure. Research Instruments Materials used in the study: * Brick molder * Cement * Dry Leaves * Water * Shovel Procedure: 1. Pulverize the gathered dry leaves. 2. Mix the pulverized dry leaves, 3 cups cement and 2 cups water. 3. Using a shovel mix thoroughly then put in a block molder. 4. Shape mixed substance. 5. Wait for the block to dry. Research Locale The study was conducted at one of the researcher’s home in Brgy. 12, Cabadbaran City. The place is complete with materials that are use in the study.

Need and Respect

Most people appreciate receiving respect from others; however, much of the time people fail to give respect. Respect takes a number of forms: Respect for other people, respect for people's property, and perhaps most importantly, respect for oneself. If you want others to give you respect, you must first learn how to give respect yourself. People need to be treated with Respect. Everyone needs and deserves respect. Respect is a basic human need. We all crave respect and we all should give respect. The Golden rule, Due unto others as you would have done unto you, is perfect example of respect.This famous saying means treat others as you would want to be treated. Or in other words respect everyone. The great hold upon people is the desire for respect and admiration by others. Why? People need friends and to feel loved. If you are constantly rejected by people it hurts and it may form the way you respect someone. Compassion is remembering the humanity behind the case. Compassion is remem bering the role you have in someone’s life. Compassion is listening rather than just looking like you are listening. Compassion is treating someone as you would want yourself, or a close family member whom you care about, to be treated.We can’t always do what we want for someone, provide the services needed, take the necessary action – but we can always treat people as if they are human beings and we can always show respect and behave with dignity. Respect is not an emotion; it’s an action we perform. It is something we do to show others we value them. Showing respect is one way we can show compassion and bring healing to someone during a compromising time in one’s life. Compassion in social work is teamwork we all have to work together to help and save lives.

First 3 Religion Journal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

First 3 Religion Journal - Essay Example The main questions worried modern religious leaders are s Should "practicing" Christian homosexuals, bisexuals, and transgendered people be allowed to serve as ordained ministers? Should the unions of gay and lesbian couples be recognized as legitimate marriages in the eyes of God? These and other questions rend congregations, denominations, and sometimes even our families. One side asserts that people should be welcomed into churches, into the ministry, and into our understanding of the American family regardless of their sexual orientation; the other side insists that any sexual preference other than heterosexuality is a sin and should be proscribed by all faithful Christians. No apparent solution to these disagreements lies on the horizon (Rudy 54). The presence and social acceptance of homosexuality challenges the concept of a God who is known solely or primarily through gender. By their very existence, gay people, and particularly gay Christians, contest the notion that human be ings are meant to live in nuclear, heterosexual families. As a result of their desire to be faithful to and known by God, conservative Christians today are producing an environment in which theological reassurance, salvation, American exceptionalism, homophobia, and political involvement have become gravely interdependent. The marriage doctrines of the Bible demonstrate that conservatives wholeheartedly support sex in instances that uphold the overarching structure of gendered theology. The vicious animosity directed toward homosexuals, along with other aspects of the family values, keeps women at home and dependent on men and thus guarantees every Christian man, woman, and child a relationship with God. Recognition that the bifurcation is not simply between "flesh" and "spirit" brings into sharp focus how hard conservative sexual ideology and the campaign for family values work to keep women in their place. The current struggle over homosexuality in the church, then, is not only a struggle about the morality of sexual preference; it is a conflict rooted in Christian identity and the nature of God (Rudy 51). The struggle among contemporary Christians over the moral acceptability of homosexuality is directly related to who God is perceived to be and how believers think God relates to us in the world tod ay. While the Christian Right championed and developed an extensive discourse about the value of the family and the sinfulness of homosexuality, mainline Christian denominations failed to issue clear, unambiguous statements on these issues. Even progressive Christians marshaled no counterpart to conservative rhetoric. In part this is due to the fact that the belief that the heterosexual nuclear family was both superior to other configurations and in need of protection was hard to escape. It was advocated not only by religious conservatives, but also by an assortment of scholars, journalists, and cultural critics who asserted the family's superiority on sociological or psychological rather than religious grounds (Rudy 54). Homosexuality violates traditional institution of marriage as a core of the society but religious believers have no right to blame or reject homosexual men. In religious tradition, the family is the source of values necessary for resistance to power and tendencies in the modern world. Another Christian justification of homosexuality rests on the idea that homosexual activity is no less moral than intentionally heterosexual activity; that is, homosexuality is morally equivalent to the use of birth control. 2. One of the nine fruits of Spirits is "Goodness". I suppose that goodness is important for every person because

Management , society and new forms of work Essay

Management , society and new forms of work - Essay Example As such, Marazzi divided his thoughts on the subject of capital and language in four chapters: the transformation of economy from Post-Fordism to the New Economy, an account of the dot-com crash in 2001, the monetization of surplus value and the current trends, or the War Economy, in the business cycle as economic crisis continues to generate havoc throughout the global economies. The changes in working practices and patterns through the transition from Post-Fordism to the New Economy arose in the late 1980s and were fully established with the flourish of dot.com companies of the 1990s. The period of the dot-com bubble or the Information technology Bubble was marked by the formation of new Internet-based companies that maximized the use of steady commercial growth of the Internet. Several companies invested in ______________________ 1Haiven, M. 2009. In-Credible Wealth and Panic in the â€Å"New Economy†. Criticism. 51 (1): 165. using the e-prefix which increased the confidenc e of stock prices and future profits. Unfortunately, the bubble collapsed in early 2000s as large portion of market capitalization of numerous companies failed or declined dramatically2. With Post-Fordism being agreed as the transformation of the nature of work, the New Economy settles on the importance of finance specifically on the stock market. Marazzi relates work and finance through language by stating, †¦in the New Economy language and communication are structurally and contemporaneously present throughout both the sphere of the production and distribution of goods and services and the sphere of finance, and that it is for this very reason that changes in the world of work and modifications in the financial markets must be seen as two sides of the same coin3. Post-Fordism produces numerous goods and services that are set to the diversification of commercialized values and way of life. However, the centrality of communications and information technology in the United State s and other Western countries has delivered a new breed of expensive managers and technicians. Increased worker participation and elastic work schedules are applied in production to maximize efficiency and flexibility while eroding job security through the employment of contract and outsourced labour4. Finance was first examined by the author, from its beginnings to the concerns of the ______________________ 2Lowenstein, R. 2004. Origins of the Crash: The Great Bubble and its Undoing. Penguin Books. p. 114. 3Marazzi, C. 2008. Capital & Language: From New Economy to War Economy. Semiotext(e). p. 14. 4Holland, J. 2005. Fordism/Post-Fordism. Globalization & Autonomy Glossary. p. 2. http://globalautonomy.ca/global1/servlet/Glossarypdf?id=CO.0021 (Accessed November 9, 2012). financialisation of the economy. He noted that if savings had been focused in household economies before, the New Economy has shifted this habit into using the collective savings and pension schemes of individuals as investments for their financial future. In the past, labour was affected by economic crises through the loss of jobs and the cutback of public spending. However, labour is now directly invested in the performance capital making contemporary financial crises different from past ones. Hence,

Septic Shock Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Septic Shock - Essay Example The patient’s skin appears warm, dry and flushed. I called the resident-on-call to report these deviations in the vital signs, and he ordered 2 intravenous boluses of NSS (normal saline solution) 500cc and oxygen administration of 2 liters per minute via nasal prongs (NP). There is no order for serum lactate measurement or arterial blood gas analysis. There are also no orders for blood culture, blood chemistry, or even antibiotics. Four hours after surgical ICU admission, my patient was still in high fever, having a systolic BP of 75 mmHg, HR of 145 per minute, RR of more than 40 breaths per minute, low oxygen saturation, decreased LOC (level of consciousness) and decreased urine output (see table 1 for summary of the trend). I called the resident-on-call again, but there was no response. I called the RRT (rapid response team) instead. See the following Table for the trend: Vital Signs 2 hours later 4 hours later BP 75/40 mmHg 75 mmHg systolic HR 130 per minute 145 per minute RR 30 per minute 40 per minute Oxygen Saturation 88% It would appear that this was not recognized appropriately as management of the patient did not improve the cardiovascular status. Within the four-hour span of surgical ICU admission, most assessment, diagnostic procedures, medical and evaluation necessary for septic shock management were absent, and there was only two hours remaining for the 6-hour crucial period of the Sepsis Resuscitation Bundle. Case Outline In a normal physiology, the three components of blood circulation compensate each other to maintain the normal circulation, which are the heart, the vascular tone and the blood volume in maintaining adequate systemic perfusion. For example, if there is inadequate circulating blood volume, the baroreceptors of the aortic arch will signal the heart to increase the heart rate to raise blood pressure. Other organs in the circulation, like the kidneys, will compensate as well, like the activation of rennin-angiotensin-aldostero ne system, which will also increase the vascular tone and stimulate fluid retention. When these compensatory mechanisms fail to maintain an effective systemic perfusion, shock occurs as a result (Black & Hawks, 2005). The inadequacy of systemic perfusion in septic shock is only an aftermath of the systemic effects of microorganisms present in the body, whether it is in the bloodstream (septicemia) or localized infection. A number of risk factors are associated with septic shock: age, co-existing infection, co-existing hepatic, renal and heart failure, decreased white blood cells, unknown source of infection, corticosteroid use, and retention of foreign body in the system (Leibovici et al, 1997; Labelle et al, 2008; Annane et al, 2003; Brun-Buisson et al, 1995). It is uncertain whether infection occurred from the patient’s previous abdominal surgery or otherwise. Black and Hawks (2005) gives an excellent pathophysiology of septic shock. The invading pathogen releases endotoxin s which generates a myriad of reactions in the body. One is the activation of kinins, specifically bradykinin, which is the main responsible for the hypovolemic state in septic shock since it causes vasodilation, decreasing blood pressure and venous return. When the offending microorganism is destroyed, tumor

Immigration issue Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Immigration issue - Research Paper Example However, the U.S. has also witnessed rising number of illegal immigrants into the U.S. since the late 19th century an issue, which has triggered a strong debate in American politics. The illegal immigration of Mexicans into the U.S. has particularly been very controversial throughout history. This is because of the security threats posed by the illegal immigrants from Mexico. The concerns have been catalyzed by the September 11 terrorist attacks that left many Americans dead and scores injured. This has seen the border between the two countries being closed and reopened several times due to a number of reasons, according to Frum (270). The Mexican workers have contributed significantly to the development of the economy and prosperity of the U.S. Mexican workers have been regarded as efficient and strong. Additionally, unlike the Native Americans and other immigrants, they were willing to accept low wages in inhumane conditions. Despite the positive contribution of the Mexican immigra nts to the U.S. economy, they have also impacted negatively both on the U.S. and Mexico, as well. The debatable question in Congress pertains to how to gain better control of the U.S. borders in order to stop illegal immigration. This paper discusses the history of the Mexican immigrants into the U.S. This will then be followed by the various strategies that can be employed to solve the issue of illegal immigrants from Mexico. ... Immigration occurs for a number of reasons most of which are economical, according to US Immigration Support (2). The living expenses and wage rates differ significantly from one country to another. For instance, the living standards in poor third world countries are far below that of developed countries. As a result, individuals from poor underdeveloped countries find it prudent to move to other countries, which they believe have better living standards than their own countries. This has seen many people from underdeveloped countries immigrate in their numbers into developed countries such as the United States. Mexican citizens are a classical example of poor individuals who are yearning for a far higher living standard, as in the U.S., observed Grayson (par.2). The economic pressure for the poor Mexican is so high to the extent that when legal means is restricted, they find it prudent to immigrate illegally, according to US Immigration Support (4). This has seen the number of illeg al Mexican immigrants increase significantly over the years, something that has been a controversial issue for the Americans. The history of Mexican immigration into the U.S. dates back to 1850s, when the first Mexican immigrant came into the U.S. The number of Mexican immigrants into the U.S. increased since then and by 1880’s about 55,000 Mexican workers had immigrated to the U.S. to work in farms that had belonged to Mexico, according to Dinan (par.5). At this time, the Mexican workers institution in the U.S. was well established in the mining industry, commercial agriculture, and railroad and light industries. The Mexican poor had a extremely poor working conditions and low remuneration. Dinan reveals that the presence of the Mexican workers began with

The Importance of Logo for any Organisation Essay

The Importance of Logo for any Organisation - Essay Example Logo Of Fila 11 Conclusion 12 Recommendations 13 Bibliography And References 15 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The report explains the importance of logo for any organisation and how important logo is in communicating the offerings and values of the organisation to the target audience as well as the society. The report explains that the logo should be prepared considering different aspects and management should pay a lot of attention while deigning of logo. As logo is a critical marketing tool which is not changed every year therefore it is important that the management comes up with a logo that is able to reflect the existing and future offerings of the company, the industry in which is operating, the products and services that the company would like to offer, the values of the organisation and the brand image. It is very important that the logo of the company should be catchy, engaging and pleasing to the eyes of the target audience. The logo should be able to communicate important features or characteristics that differentiate the organisation from others. Importantly, logo should make the firm stand out and logo should look prominent when logos of other firms in the industry are compared. The report analyses the logo of Zara, a retailer that offers clothing and other accessories for men, women and kids. The logo of Zara and what it communicates to the people is studied and its logo has been compared with other logos in the fashion industry. Recommendations have been given in order to improve the logo so that it becomes more appealing and more engaging for the target audience. introduction Logo is a graphical image or icon or a trademark used by organisations to reflect their name so that people are able to recognize the organisation (Design, 2005). Logo is the identity of the business and organisations around the world spent a lot of time in designing their logos as logo reflect the company and a dull or a common logo would not be able to attract customers or help people recognize the brand (Williamson, 1994). It is important for organisations to differentiate their logo from others so that they are able to recognize at once when they glance at the logo (Rivers, 2002). Logo is considered as one of the most important marketing tools as it is used in different places like promotional tools such as brochures, flyers, advertisements, and other marketing material (Duffy, & Hopper, 2003). A good logo helps in communicating what the company is about and what it can offer to its customers whereas a poor logo confuses people and they are unsure what the company is about and what it could offer to customers (Olins, 2003). The shape, colours and how the name or logo is presented is important as it gives the idea of the presentation of the company and if an organisation have not focused on its logo which is the symbolic representation of the company, then how it could offer quality products to its customers (Pavitt, 2002). This report analyses logo of one of the firms in the fashion industry, Zara. The logo is Zara is confusing as it is not able to represent what the company offers. Selection of Logo Zara is one of the leading fashion brands in the international industry offerings variety of clothing and different accessories for people of all ages. The company has its he adquarters in Arteixo, Spain and it has been operating since 1975. Zara offers clothing products for men, women as well as kids. There are lots of variety available for each group of people as one can find jackets, sweaters, blazers, shoes, jeans, shirts, t-shirts etc (Tiplady, 2006). Zara has been described as one of the most innovative retailers internationally by Louis Vuitton (CNN, 2001). As it has been claimed that Zara is one of the most innovative retailers therefore the company should have a logo that could

Marketing of Dairy Products Made Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 1

Marketing of Dairy Products Made - Essay Example Further, yak milk has a distinct flavor and caters only to a niche market, therefore; marketing, the category of yak milk will be more important than marketing this particular brand. Any marketing campaign will need to set the groundwork for yak milk benefits rather than Land ‘o Lake branded yak milk features. i. The team of professionals working on the project is experienced and has the expertise required. Simultaneously, the local Chinese team of Dr. Wu and Mr. Dongzhou is a very suitable partner, as they have the government contracts; the local perspective and the experience of working in the country that the team can count on to formulate a successful and far-reaching campaign. Further to the fact that Dr. Wu and Mr. Dongzhou have good government contracts, the political structure of the country is such that if the right officials are on board and are agreeable to the project, the campaign has better chances of success. ii. The government is interested in developing the Tibetan region and has been working on developing the infrastructure to empower the impoverished herdsmen. Thus the team will have the government’s support on its side if the team and the local partners lobby it with the officials as being a tool to improve the lives of the poor in that region. The team can promote the idea to the government that by selling their cattle’s milk, the herdsmen will be provided a viable opportunity for conducting business and raising the standard of living in the region. i. Even though the team from Land ‘ o Lakes has local partners, the team itself has relatively little experience of working in developing countries and therefore it will be difficult for them to truly grasp the nuances of local culture. ii. The advertising campaigns currently being undertaken are well developed and sophisticated, given this context, the yak milk project will have a very slight to nil margin of error in depicting local tastes.

Critique Assignment Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Critique Assignment - Coursework Example The research being conducted is a quantitative research where trials and simulations were used to collect data. In this research, the participants were subjected to tests, some of which were multiple choices, while some involved the use of a Likert-scale, to measure their response towards the questions asked, and the research question at large. The previous studies in the research include a study by Ackerman, Kanfer and Goff (1995) with their study on cognitive and noncognitive determinants and consequences and complex skill acquisition. Another study is by Kanfer and Ackerman (1989). Kraiger, Ford and Salas (1993) are other authors whose study on the interaction between goal orientation and cognitive ability, was used in the study. Studies by Dweck (1986, 1989) on motivational processes affecting learning were also used in the literature and motivation, were also used in the literature. Farr, Hofmann and Ringenbach (1993) on goal orientation and action control theory, also had their study used in the literature of this study. Studies by Button et al. (1996) on goal orientation in organizational research, Ford, Smith, Weissbein, Gully and Salas (1998) on relationship on goal orientation, Kozlowski et al. (2001) on effects of training goals and goal orientation on multi-dimension training, and Philip and Gully (1997) on role of goal orientation, ability need for achievement and locus of control in the self-efficacy goal setting process, are among other studies listed in the literature review.

Tyco Corporation Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Tyco Corporation - Case Study Example The corporate culture at Tyco under the control of Dennis Kozlowski (and previous CEO, Joseph Gaziano) placed huge importance on aggressive leadership style and acquisition rate, trying to increase the overall earnings of the company by expansion rather than thrifty and careful planning to increase the profits for shareholders. Additionally, the corporate culture seems to have encouraged managers and employees of Tyco to use false or ambiguous accounting styles to allow the continuing expansion of the company. Using these accounting styles, as well as the decentralization of the different branches of Tyco meant that the organizational culture of the company under Kozlowski allowed for falsification and secrecy in the accounting, misleading investors and diverting funds towards Kozlowski. As previously mentioned, there were several accounting tricks and slights of hand involved in the accounting at Tyco under Kozlowski, and this meant there were several loopholes and several areas which were not being accounted for as they should be in such a company. The fact that these bonuses were not authorized could have meant that Kozlowski could siphon them off into a personal account without any board interference, particularly as all departments worked in semi-isolation and reported to Kozlowski before reporting to the board members. Kozlowski continues to claim innocence to this day, which suggests that he feels that these actions he took were not criminal. Additionally, he claims that the jurors that sentenced him were â€Å"jealous†, presumably because of his large wealth (parts of which were gained through the aforementioned criminal activities). Kozlowski, then, is unrepentant because he claims his innocence, presumably because he feels that as CEO he had some right to alter or falsify some of the figures to give Tyco a large profit; he probably felt that in some way he was benefiting the shareholders during this act, giving him a clean conscience.

Investigation into Roles and Contracts of the Music Industry Essay Example for Free

Investigation into Roles and Contracts of the Music Industry Essay Scenario Your local paper has assigned you with a task to present them with information about the roles and contracts in the Music industry. Carry out an investigation that describes/explains/comments critically on the roles and contracts of one area of the Music Industry and deliver your results as a presentation to the class. Task 1: Using Publisher/ Word, you need to research, write and describe the contracts associated with an area of the Music Industry (Live Performance: e.g. artist’s responsibilities with a label, or a manager/agency’s responsibilities with an artist/performer) (P3) In order to gain a MERIT grade, in addition to the requirements of the PASS criteria, you will need to describe and explain the above by providing examples. (P1, P2, M1, M2) In order to gain a DISTINCTION grade, in addition to the PASS and MERIT criteria, you will need to describe, explain and comment critically the above by giving examples, drawing conclusions from experience and/or research (P1, P2, M1, M2, D1, D2) 2 Know the professional roles within a chosen area of the music industry Live performance: eg performer/artist, DJ, agent, promoter, venues and stage management, crew/ technicians, security, merchandise Record companies: eg AR, promotion, distribution and retail, merchandising Music publishing companies: eg publishing, copyright, sales, composer and artist development  Artist management: eg artists, songwriter/composer, manager Assessment Method: Class presentation. To include referencing

Psychological Contract: Work-Life Balance in Retail

Psychological Contract: Work-Life Balance in Retail Title: A contemporary analysis of the concept of work life balance and the effects of the psychological contract within the business. Geared towards retail. A compiled list of the 6 main sources of information that could be used with justification as to why they are relevant and a paragraph on key theories/models, analysis tools that would be used in this dissertation. A total of around 600 words. With regard to the paper recently completed, this addendum represents some further thoughts and resources which would be required to expand the work into a wider study. There are three themes which would need to be pursued in a more detailed examination of this topic. The nature of the generic Psychological Contract. The nature of the Psychological Contract in the Retail Sector, and its relationship with marketing. The nature of HRM and SHRM (Strategic Human Resources Management) in the Retail Sector. These themes would need to be explored across a range of material, beginning with secondary sources, and ideally extending into qualitative primary research involving HR professionals, and retail staff themselves. The six main related secondary and primary sources. Guest, D.E., and Conway, N., (2004), Employee Well-being and the Psychological Contract: A Report for the CIPD, Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development, London. This source is essential because it provides an insight into both the agreed definitions of the psychological contract within the HR profession, and the application of that model in their vocational practice. Buchanan, D., and Huczynski, A., (2006), Organizational Behaviour: An Introductory Text, Prentice Hall/Financial Times, London. This source is essential as a prà ©cis of the relevant motivational theories, work of Herzberg, McGregor, Maslow, Adams, Vroom, Porter and Lawler. Analysis of the implications of McGregor’s X and Y theories of reward/coercion, and Herzberg’s concept of extrinsic and intrinsic rewards, as set out in Brooks, I., (2003), Organisational Behaviour: Individuals, Groups and Organisation, 2nd Ed, FT-Prentice Hall, London, and Fincham, R., and Rhodes, P., (2005), Principles of Organisational Behaviour, 4th Edition, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Within the extrinsic and intrinsic reward model, extrinsic rewards may be thought of as those of material considerations and working conditions, whilst intrinsic rewards are more honorific and interpersonal. Hofstede’s cultural dimensions index, as set out in Hofstede, G., (2003), Cultures and Organizations: Intercultural Cooperation and its Importance for Survival, Profile Business, London, and Gerte Hofstede Cultural Dimensions Website, INTERNET, available at http://www.geert-hofstede.com/hofstede_dimensions.php?culture1=95culture2=18#compare [viewed 26.10.08], would need to be employed to assess the different motivational models and tolerances which are increasingly visible in a multi-cultural workforce, and a globalizing retail sector. This would have to take account of Hofestede’s ideas of power distance, collectivism/individuality, long or short-term orientation, masculinity/femininity, and uncertainty avoidance. A comparative study of employee relationships between retail workers in Waitrose and the John Lewis partnership, and an other large retail group, i.e. Tesco’s, Woolworth or Argos. The rationale for this is that the John Lewis group is the only one to deploy an extensive profit sharing remuneration scheme with its employees. Comparative primary study of attitudes between retail employees and customers of the John Lewis partnership, and another, non-profit sharing retail group in the UK. To be carried out through a combination of†¦ questionnaires comprising binary yes/no responses and written answers to set questions. A small number of in-depth and semi-flexible individual interviews. Key theoretical approaches here would be evolved around a balance of phenomenological and positivist research formats, to obtain qualitatively useful data, which could also support statistical models with a possible wider application. McGregor’s extrinsic/intrinsic scale model questionnaire could be employed to lend a positivist dimension to the attitudinal data produced. This paper outlines some key themes in contemporary retailing HRM, focusing particularly on the significance of the psychological contract within the business, and the concept of work life balance. It argues that contemporary economic and trading conditions have tended to expose the way in which both issues are treated in the retail sector, and attributes this to continued trends for tertiary and part-time employment patterns. As Hooley et al. observe, ‘†¦Well developed marketing resources (assets and capabilities), when deployed in the marketplace, can lead to superior market performance. Satisfied and well motivated staff (a prime marketing asset), for example, can make a significant contribution to creating satisfied and loyal customers’ (Hooley et.al., p.21). At boardroom level however, contemporary pressures on costs may impinge upon staff CPD and retention. In the first instance, it may be helpful to foreground the concept of the psychological contract itself. As Sonnetag observes, ‘There is relatively consistent empirical evidence for a positive relationship between specific aspects of individual well being and.performance.’ (Sonnetag, p.4110 ). One way in which this symbiosis between employee motivation and output can be achieved, is through a management style which exceeds the formal terms of the contractual obligation in terms of an equitable relationship. As Williams indicates. ‘..this interpersonal aspect to fairness reminds us that there is a social basis to the exchange relationship between employer and employee and we might expect this to be part of the psychological contract.’ (Williams,1998: p.183). The concept of the psychological contract rests on the idea that workplace relationships inevitably develop beyond those encapsulated in explicit frameworks, hierarchies, and job descriptions. It is there fore perfectly feasible for management to de-motivate staff even though they are formally empowered to do so – by breaching ‘informal’ or psychologically accepted principles. As Guest and Conway point out, ‘†¦built on the three pillars of fairness, trust and delivery of the deal between organizations and employees, a positive psychological contract is the best guarantee of good performance outcomes.’ (Guest and Conway, 2003: p.vii). There is much empirical evidence to suggest that retail employers are acting to redress percived inadequacies in this area. For example, as Murray reports, fast-food giant McDonald’s has acted to improve its image since the term ‘McJob’ entered the Oxford english Dictionary, denoting ‘†¦an unstimulating, low-paid job with few prospects†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ (Murray 2008: n.p.) Part of the response has been to initiate CPD programmes which combine flexible working arrangements with learning programmes to develop staff skills and accreditation. Other retail management and service sector managers also see this as the route to recruit and retain the best staff. As Jack Constantinides, vice-president HR and business partner for Monster for Europe West and Prague explains, ‘People are looking for more from their job than just a chunky pay package – including job satisfaction, career prospects, training, benefits and crucially work-life balance’. (Murray 2008: n.p.). This suggests that, where costs will allow, more mature businesses may see the creation of value as the route to business stability through intrinsic as well as extrinsic employee reward. However, contemporary trading conditions may militate against the expenditure of such on-costs, at least for the time being. As Taylor reports, ‘The disclosure last week that Marks and Spencer wants to reduce redundancy benefits for staff has sparked union fears that the retail group is preparing the way for large-scale job cuts.’ (Taylor 2008: n.p.). MS are obviously not the only high-profile high street victims: As Kilgren and Braithwaite observe of the troubled Woolworth chain, ‘Up to a third of the 1,000 retail division staff at head office may lose their jobs†¦ PwC, auditor to Woolworth’s, pointed to material uncertainties which may cast significant doubt about the companys ability to continue as a going concern.’ (Kilgren and Braithwa ite, 2008: n.p.). When discussing the issue of work life balance amongst retail employees, it is arguably unhelpful to regard this couplet as representative of a homogeneous and undifferentiated employee group. In a sector strongly associated with casualized, part-time, and often female labour, it is important to recognize the way in which different social groups may derive a satisfactory relationship between their home and working lives. As Kirby observes, ‘At a time when female â€Å"returners† are set to become an increasingly significant element in the UK workforce, British retailing remains highly dependent on part-time female labour. At the same time, working conditions appear not to be as attractive as they might be. Pay remains low and career prospects and training opportunities are poor, especially for part-time employees†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ (Kirby 1993: p.205). It is at this point that the psychological contract and work-life balance are arguably drawn closer together, a point which may be reinforced by considering the motivational theories of Adams. As Huczyinski and Buchanan explain, ‘Adams proposed that we compare our rewards (pay, recognition) and contributions (time, effort, ideas) with the outputs and inputs of others. Equity thus exists when these rations are equal. Rewards can include a range of tangible and intangible factors†¦Inputs similarly relate to any factor that you believe you bring to the situation†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ (Huczyinski and Buchanan 2007: p.249). In other words, employers face a range of competing challenges when balancing employee satisfaction with business objectives. Bibliography Braithwaite, T., and Kilgren, L., ‘Woolies plans job cuts in bid to reduce its costs’, Financial Times, 18 September 2008, INTERNET, available at http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/96ef9e80-8519-11dd-b148-0000779fd18c.html, [viewed 14.10.08], n.p. Murray, S., ‘Staff want more than just their pay packet’, Financial Times, 8 July 2008, INTERNET, available at http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/eafbdc08-46af-11dd-876a-0000779fd2ac.html, [viewed 14.10.08], n.p. Bromley, R.D.F., and Thomas, C.J., (ed), (1993), Retail Change: contemporary issues, UCL Press, London. Guest, D.E., and Conway, N., (2004), Employee Well-being and the Psychological Contract: A Report for the CIPD, Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development, London. Hooley, G., Saunders, J., Piercy, N., (2004) Marketing Strategy and Competitive Positioning (3rd Edition) Prentice Hall, Essex Kirby, D.A. ‘Working conditions and the trading week’, in Bromley, R.D.F., and Thomas, C.J., (ed), (1993), Retail Change: contemporary issues, UCL Press, London, pp.192-207. Sonnetag, S., (ed), (2002), Psychological Management of Individual Performance, John Wiley and Sons, Chichester. Stacey, K., and Rigby, E., ‘Retail supply chain begins to turn rusty’, Financial Times, 8 Oct 2008, INTERNET, available at http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/a67ef3ae-94d3-11dd-953e-000077b07658.html [viewed 14.10.08], n.p. Taylor, A., ‘Inquiries on how to shed staff soar’, Financial Times, 25 Aug 2008, INTERNET, available at http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/6c8bed96-723c-11dd-a44a-0000779fd18c.html [viewed 15.10.08], n.p. Van der Lippe, T., and Peters, P., (2007), (eds), Competing Claims in Work and Family Life, Edward Elgar, Cheltenham. Williams, R.S., (1998) Performance Management: Perspectives on Employee Performance, International Thomson Business Press, St.Ives.

Analysis of Lindt Sprüngli Chocolate Brand

Analysis of Lindt Sprà ¼ngli Chocolate Brand In 2001, chocolate production (without semi-finished products) in Germany reached to 730,000 tons, of which 50,000 tons were exported. Sales volume of German chocolate market was the biggest in the Europe (EUR 3.4 billion). Approximately 100 producers existed in the chocolate industry. 35% of the market was served by the 2 biggest players: Ferrero (from Italy) and Kraft Foods (from the USA). Both of them marketed multiple brands of chocolate and were producing mainly for mass market. There also existed many family-owned small confectioners. They were specialised in fine chocolates and exquisite pralines. Lindt Sprà ¼ngli, a medium-sized company, hold the 3rd position in the German chocolate market. The company served only premium segment. Market could be segmented by the type of chocolate used in the production: dark chocolate, white chocolate or whole milk chocolate. But the most common way was to distinguish the market by the product type: chocolate tablets, pralines, seasonal products, chocolate bars, chocolate surprise products and chocolate snacks. Lindt Sprà ¼ngli products comprised only the first 3 types: chocolate tablets, pralines, seasonal products. The following main distribution channels could be identified: Specialty stores carried high quality chocolate, provided good service to customers, enabled confectioners to receive direct feedback from consumers and to run promotions at the point of sale. General retailers consist of food retailers and discount stores. This channel distributes products for mass market. Discount stores are classified as hard (focusing only on price) and soft stores. General retailers provided low or no service for the customers. Proprietary shops or praline boutiques usually owned by small family-owned confectioners. This channel allowed the manufacturer to be very close to end-customer and evaluate their feedback. Flagship stores, also qualified as proprietary shops, were used mainly to promote brand image. Convineince stores focused mainly on impulse purchases. Online shops were only marginaly important in Germany. Factory outlets were used to sell the overproduction or second choice products. Specialty stores were the core distribution channel for the Lindt Sprà ¼ngli. But discount stores were putting high pressure on Specialty store. In 2000 discount store sales increased by approximately 40% compared to 1992, and Lindts sales in specialty stores dropped by around 14% compared to 1992 (though moderate increase from 1997). Since 1997 Lindt Sprà ¼ngli also used food retailers and soft discounters as additional distribution channel. Their step was made with caution and didnt take full advantage of segment growth, though raised high disapproval of specialty stores. Strategic Alternatives Lindt Sprà ¼ngli has different strategic alternatives. 1. Company can choose exclusive intensity for distribution: totally quit the mass market and sell only through specialty stores. (Michael R. Solomon, 2009) In this case, Lindts brand image would increase, appropriate service would be provided, control on the distribution channel would increase, emotional connection with the customer would be established, close feedback sales in specialty stores would be monitored and specialty stores will be satisfied with decision. The negative effects are decreased revenue (mass market is a big market), increased bargaining power of specialty stores. (Grant, 2010) 2. Intensive distribution largely focusing on mass market is another option (while distribution through specialty stores is sustained). For implementing this strategy the company should largely use food retailers and soft discounter. This will probably increase the sales, and lower specialty stores bargaining power. In this case Lindt Sprà ¼ngli could decrease its expenditure on RD. The negative effects of this option are lower brand image, little or no control on the quality of service, little or no feedback from consumer, vertical channel conflict (high competition will lead to lower margins) dissatisfaction of specialty stores. Use of hard discounter would have destructive negative affect on brand image. (Spekman, 2009) 3. Flagship stores could be used to increase brand image and brand identity. This would also decrease bargaining power of specialty stores and could bring dissatisfaction of the latter. 4. Factory outlets could be used to sell the overproduction at low price. The overproduction of high priced products shouldnt be sold here. 5. For using convenience stores Lindt have to develop new products like snacks. Use of this option will negatively affect the brand image. 6. Online shops could be used for premium products. Especially for the seasonal products, it could be used to arrange a delivery as a gift. Given to increase the sales and to sustain the companys philosophy of providing high quality chocolate, the best solution for Lindt Sprà ¼ngli could be the use of multi-channel distribution. Company can split into 2 different brand names: Lindt Luxury (for example) and Lindt. The first would be for high quality premium products with rigorous selected ingredients, and the second would serve mass market. This strategy only partly would harm brand image, but would increase the market share and revenues. Specialty stores would be only partly dissatisfied, as their products would differ from those of retailers and discounters. Online shops could be used additionally.

Personal Narrative- Car Accident :: Personal Narrative Essays

Personal Narrative- Car Accident Disappointment, disbelief and fear filled my mind as I lye on my side, sandwiched between the cold, soft dirt and the hot, slick metal of the car. The weight of the car pressed down on the lower half of my body with monster force. It did not hurt, my body was numb. All I could feel was the car hood's mass stamping my body father and farther into the ground. My lungs felt pinched shut and air would neither enter nor escape them. My mind was buzzing. What had just happened? In the distance, on that cursed road, I saw cars driving by completely unaware of what happened, how I felt. I tried to yell but my voice was unheard. All I could do was wait. Wait for someone to help me or wait to die. The third maddening buzz of my alarm woke me as I groggily slid out of bed to the shower. It was the start of another routine morning, or so I thought. I took a shower, quarreled with my sister over which clothes she should wear for that day and finished getting myself ready. All of this took a little longer than usual, not a surprise, so we were running late. We hopped into the interior of my sleek, white Thunderbird and made our way to school. With music blasting, voices singing and talking, it was another typical ride to school with my sister. Because of our belated departure, I went fast, too fast. We started down the first road to our destination. This road is about three miles long and filled with little hills. As we broke the top of one of the small, blind hills in the middle of the right lane was a dead deer. Without any thought, purely by instinct I pulled the wheel of the car to the left and back over to the right. No big deal but I was going fast. The car swerved back to the left, to the right, to the left. Each time I could feel the car scratching the earth with its side. My body jolted with the sporadic movements of the car. The car swerved to the right for the last time. With my eyes sealed tight, I could feel my body float off the seat of the car. I opened my eyes to see the black road in the distance above me.

Receiving the proper training :: essays research papers

Athletes throughout the United States have so much devotion and dedication to their sport than anything else in the world. For most people their sport comes first even over their families and school. In order for me to enhance in the sport of swimming, training had to be my number one priority, and school and family was no where in my mind. Competing as a swimmer at Conference Championships representing Golden West College to try and earn a spot on the State Championship team was my major goal for the year. I knew I had my races handed to me, just that fact of being placed as the top seed of all of my races, but knowing in the back of my head, the intense workouts and pain to be standing here but not receiving the right taper from my coaches cost me to earn a spot. At the beginning of the season training was just conditioning for your body to get into shape for the grueling workouts ahead. The coaching staff doesn’t really have much enthusiasm to motivate their swimmers. For example, cheering us on while swimming is a major factor because it paces your race while you swim and also gets your adrenalin up and that’s what they lack. The coaches just like to sit in their chairs and jot down times and rarely respond to you about your swim whether it’s good or bad. If you’re ahead of the pack they say you could have done better, they reply the same statement to the losers, so their comments are meaningless. Well soon enough Conference Championships comes around which consist of the local colleges of our surroundings. (OCC, RCC, Saddleback etc..) Once this starts training becomes much and much easier for some athletes who have a less chance to earn a spot on the State team. But for the remaining of the athletes training stays the same. For some of us that didn’t suit to well with our performances. For some swimmers they need to have a longer taper then others because of the amount of muscle they have. So our coaches asked if you truly believe in having a long taper then let us know before workout today so we can plan your schedule. For me, throughout my swimming career I have had two to three week tapers and my performance is at the top.

Google Books

Tourism Operations In your own words please share with me your understanding on these concepts. I will be grading on depth of knowledge, practical examples and management techniques of each product or service. Please Use Weekly ADAIR, REPAY and Occupancy% PDF – Performance By Industry Segments For the Week of: February 03, 2013 – February 09, 2013 Forecasting Question: #1 – Your hotel is in Phoenix, Arizona.For the Week of: February 03, 2013 – February 9, you're your Occupancy % is down but your ADAIR and Repay are up. Please share with me in a written response the reason for this variance. In other words why if your occupancy % is down would you ADAIR and Repay be up? If you were the General Manager what would you change or keep the same for next weeks rates and why? Tourist Target Markets – Here is the URL for Hotel Simulator, please review the tourist market segment section for next weeks final.Please copy and paste this URL into your browser to access. Http://www. Heterosexuality. Com/document/o. L . 1 . HTML #2 – A market segment is simply a group of customers who have common requirements for a product or a service. Below you will see four tourist market segments that you would like to attempt to attract to your hotel: 1) Business – Name two out of the top three influences that are present in each of the business traveler's decision making process. Why are these so important to the equines traveler? ) Families – Name the three least influential factors in why a family will choose your Hotel over another. 3) International & Affluent Mature.

Epic theatre

The only form that can grasp the processes which drama needs to grasp if it Is to provide an all-encompassing view of the world† BB's ‘all-encompassing view of the world' was Marxism. Epic Theatre derives from Greek. Epos, story. A form of theatre which self consciously narrates. Estrangement effect = estrangement/alienation effect: distancing the viewer from the action; encouraging rational thought and analysis; reducing emotional catharsis. Aristotelian Theatre / non-Aristotelian Theatre.Term derives from Aristotle's Poetics. A. formulated an aestheuc based on catharsis, ( = purging of emotion through empathy), hence BB's description of his Epic Theatre as â€Å"non-Aristotelian Theatre†. Epic Theatre = Historicised theatre, theatre about the present, but not set In the present. (Distanclatlon) verfremdungseffekt (V-Effekt): Entfremdung both equal alienation. But? Estrangement aims to facilitate rationality, reason, reflection; militate against empathy and cathar sis; learning either from or against characters; making politics into art: â€Å"The politicisation of aesthetics and the aesthetlclsatlon of politics. â€Å"BB was also a great manipulator of genre. Adaptations, parodies, allegories, parables (political not moral e. g. Arturo Ui). 1 . PARODY: Keeping an existing cultural form, but inserting a different content. The Threepenny Opera (1928): an opera peopled by beggars, gangsters ; prostitutes 2. TRAVESTY ( = disguise): retaining a familiar existing content, but delivering It In a new or different form. Two examples: The Sex Pistols' punk version of God Save the Queen. The credits' music at the end of Michael Moore's Bowling for Columbine? : the Ramones upbeat version of Wonderful world originally recorded by Louis Armstrong.Why is that travesty, and what's the effect in the context of the film and Its subject matter (crime, racism and the gun-culture in the LISA)? 3. PARABLE: â€Å"Narration by analogy. A didactic narrative conve ying a moral truth or message in another guise. † M. H. Abrams, A Glossary of Literary Terms, London, 1988. Compared to Kafka's parables (e. g. Before the Law? 4. ALLEGORY: â€Å"A narrative in which the agents and action, and sometimes the setting as well, are contrived so as to make coherent sense on the ‘literal', or primary level of significance, and also to signify a second, corresponding order of agents, concepts and events†.M. H. Abrams, ibid. The Resistible Rise of Arturo Ui (1941) reflects in parabolic form events in Germany 1929- 1939. Allusion, rather than direct one-to-one reference. Apparently/superficially about gangsters in 1930s Chicago, but actually about fascism's rise to power in Germany. Hitler as A1 Capone, Nazi politicians as 1930s Chicago gangsters, but talking in classical metre ands presented as if in a classical tragedy. Also a parable, with a political moral: ‘The womb is still fertile†.Donmar Warehouse London, 2008: Arturo I as Robert Mugabe. . As parables by definition simplify complex processes, BB's model of Germany 929-1938 is inevitably incomplete. What is missing historically? Complex negotiations re. Weimar cabinets before 1933 The book burnings (1933) The Persecution and expulsion of intellectuals (post-33) The Nazi Olympic games (August 1936) The Hitler/Stalin pact (August 1939) The Spanish civil war July 1936 – March 1939) The Munich agreement (Sept 1938) What is retained? 1 .The NAZI tactic of pseudo-legality , so for instance the Nov 1923 Beer Hall Putsch is referred to as a failed bank robbery. BUT: There's no mention of Hitler's electoral support 2. BB suggests that the petty bourgeoisie were forced to support Hitler. . Various political manoeuvrings around Hindenburg are addressed in the play, but Brecht's portrayal distorts history: In reality the Junkers supporting Hindenburg were not captains of industry, but pre-industrial agricultural landowners, economically archaic, a polit ically powerful landowning elite.BB solves this problem by giving the cauliflower trust a dual function: they are both industrialists and they also represent the Junkers' agricultural interests. 4. The ‘Anschluss' (annexation into the greater German Third Reich in 1938) is portrayed by 8B, but BB gives a different reason for it n the play, so that Ul invades Cicero to allow business to expand its interest and markets. BB ignores the political and nationalist motivation of Hitler's Anschluss, i. e. bringing the Germans ‘Heim ins Reich'. The play portrays historical figures in characters represent types: social, political, economic, class positions.Dogsborough represents the old right-wing traditional conservatives in Germany, Dollfuss the same in Austria, Trustherren represent the capitalists, and Kleinh ¤ndler represent the middle class. But BB gives hardly any insights into Hitler the person. Although Ui is a ively theatrical character, he's very one-dimensional, a th ug with hardly any charisma. Brecht: using non-realist techniques to penetrate beneath the surface appearance of capitalism to reveal its essential reality, its power strategies and economic relations.Dramatic realism (naturalism): Dismissed by Brecht as too preoccupied with the accuracy of surface details. The realist myth of a ‘slice of life' Mere reproduction of reality is inadequate. dramatic action is Art as a lamp, not a mirror Illumination, v. reflection Art should draw attention to the conditions and the process of its own production Non-realist': expose the illusion striven for by naturalist and realist writers and directors, the myth that what they offer an audience (in a theatre, cinema or wherever) is an uncomplicated unmediated â€Å"slice of life†.For Brecht non-realist methods, transcending the limitations of the strictly empirical, the verifiable, were (paradoxically? ) those most appropriate to understanding the true nature of reality, not Just its supe rficial appearance. Brecht believed he was not anti realism as such, he preferred a different form of realism. In this experimental sense Brecht was both a realist and a modernist. Typical techniques of Brechtian epic theatre in performance 1 . Announcer summarising the events to come. 2.Actors stepping outside their roles, addressing the audience, reminding us we are watching a play 3. Characters singing (as in opera, but to didactic effect) 4. Actors swapping roles (to prevent emotional identification). 5. (In film) Montage Verfremdungseffekt : a practical example SPRING The play of the sexes (regeneration of the species) is renewed Every Spring. The lovers Meet. The gentle embrace Of the lover's hand makes the Girl's breast tremble. Her fleeting glance beguiles him. In Spring the countryside Appears to the lovers renewed. The air is already warm.The days grow long and The fields stay light later. In Spring the trees and grass Grow free of inhibition. Fertilisation in the forests and fields gathers pace. And the earth gives birth to the new, Free from care and precaution. From the sound film Kuhle Wampe co-scripted by Brecht, Germany, 1931/2 James Lyon, Brecht and Hollywood Conclusion: Some broader Brecht issues to reflect on: BB's primary attraction to Marxism was his thirst for greater knowledge and greater understanding of social processes, what he called the â€Å"temptation† of rational hought (Galileo? BB was above all a scientific thinker, who sought rational solutions to social problems. He rejected metaphysics and all forms of irrationalism, and prioritised empirical thought. Precisely because of his apparently total ; exclusive dedication to rationalism BB was worthy of the term UTOPIAN thinker. BB was the ultimate rationalist, more dedicated to the analytical methods of Marxist enquiry than to Marxism's practical implementation. Did BB fetishise idolise science?Did he acknowledge its limitations? How appropriate is BB's work to the post-mod ern age, when scepticism about the ncritical appliance of science, and thus about the desirability of human progress humankind, seem to dominate the political agenda? How does the above relate to Life of Galileo? Is BB now pass ©, given the end of the Cold war, the demise of â€Å"real existing socialism† in eastern Europe, and the ‘disappearance' of his chosen German homeland (DDR) after German re-unification in 1990?Or is BB's project (to inject politics into art and art into politics i. e. to make both activities fun) now even more necessary? Look out for the predilection amongst some TV advert designers for Brechtian self- irony! The essays excerpted in John Willet's The Theatre of Bertolt Brecht are a good starting-point for investigating Brecht's views on theatrical practice. From The Modern Theatre is the Epic Theatre (notes on Mahagonny): the ‘shifts of accent' between dramatic theatre and epic theatre.Wears down his capacity arouses his capacity for for action action provides him with sensations forces him to take decisions experience picture of the world the spectator is involved in he is made to face something omething suggestion argument instinctive feelings are preserved are brought to the point of recognition the spectator is in the thick of it, spectator stands outside, studies shares the the human being is taken inquiry the human being is the object of the for granted eyes on the finish eyes on the course one scene makes another each scene for itself growth montage linear development in curves evolutionary determinism Jumps man as a fixed point man as a process thought determines being social being determines thought feeling reason Brecht on Theatre.

Quality of Education

10 A HISTORY OF THE AECT’S DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY Alan Januszewski h e State University of New York at Potsdam Kay A. Persichitte University of Wyoming Introduction The purpose of this chapter is to provide a historical context for the current dei nition of educational technology. We will do this in several stages. First, we will review the primary purposes and considerations for dei ning educational technology. h en, we will review each of the four previous dei nitions, paying particular attention to the primary concepts included in each dei nition.We will examine the context and rationales for decisions made regarding each of these primary concepts. We will also present some of the historical criticisms of the dei nitions which provided the impetus for changing the dei nitions. h e criteria and purposes for producing a dei nition were discussed at the time of the writing of the i rst dei nition in 1963. A satisfactory dei nition of instructional technology wil l let us i nd common ground, will propose tomorrow’s horizons, and will allow for a variety of patterns that specii c individuals may follow in specii c institutions . . Research must be designed in terms of clear understanding of instructional technology. Superintendents of schools are requesting criteria for new personnel ER5861X_C010. indd 259 ER5861X_C010. indd 259 8/16/07 6:24:22 PM 8/16/07 6:24:22 PM260 JANUSZEWSKI AND PERSICHITTE needed in various phases of instructional improvement. Teacher-education institutions need assistance in planning courses for pre-service and in-service instruction that will provide the skills and understanding which will be required in tomorrow’s classrooms . . Let us consider the criteria for useful dei nitions. h ey should (a) clarify the description of the i eld in ordinary language; (b) summarize existing knowledge; (c) mediate applications of knowledge to new situations; and (d) lead to fruitful lines of experimental inquiry. . . . h is report aims to provide a working dei nition for the i eld of instructional technology which will serve as a framework for future developments and lead to an improvement in instruction. (Ely, 1963, pp. –8) h ose involved in the writing of the 1963 dei nition obviously believed that there were a lot of things to consider when dei ning educational technology. Or put dif erently, the existence of such a dei nition would have far reaching consequences, sometimes with implications that the authors might not intend. Acknowledging this opened the door to criticisms of the dei – nitions and the purposes cited for redei ning educational technology. h e authors of subsequent dei nitions all seemed to adhere, at least in part, to the purposes and criteria identii ed in the 1963 dei nition.The 1963 Definition h e leadership of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT) recognized the 1963 dei nition of audiovisual communications as the i rst formal dei nition of educational technology (AECT, 1977). h is dei nition, the i rst in a series of four oi cially sanctioned dei nitions, was developed by the Commission on Dei nition and Terminology of the Department of Audiovisual Instruction (DAVI) of the National Education Association (NEA) and supported by the Technological Development Project (TDP).In 1963 audiovisual communications was the label that was used to describe the i eld as it was evolving from the audiovisual education movement to educational technology: Audiovisual communications is that branch of educational theory and practice primarily concerned with the design and use of messages which control the learning process. It undertakes: (a) the study of the unique and relative strengths and weaknesses of both pictorial and nonrepresentational messages which may be employed in the learning process for any purpose; and (b) the structuring and systematizing of messages by men and instruments in an educational environment. es e undertakings ER5861X_C010. indd 260 ER5861X_C010. indd 260 8/16/07 6:24:23 PM 8/16/07 6:24:23 PM10. A HISTORY OF THE AECT’S DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY 261 include the planning, production, selection, management, and utilization of both components and entire instructional systems. Its practical goal is the ei cient utilization of every method and medium of communication which can contribute to the development of the learner’s full potential. (Ely, 1963, pp. 18–19) A footnote that was included as part of this dei nition read â€Å"the audiovisual communications label is used at this time as an expedient.Another designation may evolve, and if it does, it should then be substituted† (p. 18). Conceptual Shit s Signaled in Dei nitions h ere are three major conceptual shit s that contributed to the formulation of the dei nitions of educational technology as a theory: (1) the use of a â€Å"process† concept rather than a â€Å"product† concept; (2) the use of the terms messages and media instrumentation rather than materials and machines; and (3) the introduction of certain elements of learning theory and communication theory (Ely, 1963, p. 19).Understanding these three ideas and their impact on each other is essential to understanding the idea of educational technology in 1963. A technological conception of the audiovisual i eld called for an emphasis on process, making the traditional product concept of the i eld of educational technology untenable. h e Commission believed, â€Å"h e traditional product concept in the audiovisual i eld views the ‘things’ of the i eld by identifying machines, use of particular senses, and characteristics of materials by degrees of abstractness and/or concreteness† (Ely, 1963, p. 19).Members of the Commission preferred a process concept of the i eld which included â€Å"the planning, production, selection, management, and utilization of both components and ent ire instructional systems† (p. 19). h is process conception also emphasized â€Å"the relationship between events as dynamic and continuous† (p. 19). h e Commission argued that â€Å"materials† and â€Å"machines† were â€Å"things† or products and opted not to use those terms in the dei nition. Instead, the Commission used the terms messages and instruments. h e Commission further argued that materials and machines were interdependent elements. A motion picture and projector are inseparable as are all other materials requiring machines for their use† (Ely, 1963, p. 19). One was of little practical use without the other. h e Commission used the concept of media instrumentation to explain instruments. h e Commission said, â€Å"Media-instrumentation indicates the ER5861X_C010. indd 261 ER5861X_C010. indd 261 8/16/07 6:24:23 PM 8/16/07 6:24:23 PM262 JANUSZEWSKI AND PERSICHITTE transmission systems, the materials and devices available to carry s elected messages† (Ely, 1963, p. 20). e concept of media instrumentation also included the people who utilized the instruments in the educational environment as well as the transmission systems. h e idea that both people and instruments comprised media instrumentation was based in the broader concept of the man-machine system (Finn, 1957). In discussions of the relationship and integration of learning theory and communications theory to instructional technology, the Commission stated, â€Å"Certain elements of learning theory and communications theory of er potential contributions [to the i eld of educational technology]; e. . , source, message, channel, receiver, ef ects, stimulus, organism, response† (Ely, 1963, p. 20). h e Commission integrated learning theory and communications theory by identifying and combining the two systems basic to the process view of the i eld: the learning-communicant system and the educational-communicant system. h ese two systems use conce pts from both learning and communications theories that delineated and specii ed the roles of the individuals involved in the use of these systems. e learnercommunicant system â€Å"refers to the student population† and the educationalcommunicant system â€Å"refers to the professional persons in the school† (p. 23). h ese two systems could be of any size, ranging from a single classroom to large school systems (Ely, 1963). Merging the two communicant systems into a single model of the educational process provided the i eld of audiovisual communications with a theoretical framework (Ely, 1963) and a model that allowed educational technology to be viewed as a theoretical construct (AECT, 1977). e fundamental doctrine advanced by the writers of the i rst dei nition was that it was a â€Å"branch of educational theory and practice. † h e word theory was particularly important in this dei nition because it had a special place in the history of the audiovisual i eld, because of the status that it conferred on the i eld, and because of the expectation for further research to inl uence the evolution of that theory. Finn’s Characteristics of a Profession e 1963 dei nition was heavily inl uenced by James Finn’s (1953) six characteristics of a profession: (a) An intellectual technique, (b) an application of that technique to the practical af airs of man, (c) a period of long training necessary before entering into the profession, (d) an association of the members of the profession into a closely knit group with a high quality of communication ER5861X_C010. indd 262 ER5861X_C010. indd 262 8/16/07 6:24:24 PM 8/16/07 6:24:24 PM10.A HISTORY OF THE AECT’S DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY 263 between members, (e) a series of standards and a statement of ethics which is enforced, and (f) an organized body of intellectual theory constantly expanded by research. (p. 7) Of these six characteristics of a profession, Finn (1953) argued that â€Å"the most fundamental and most important characteristic of a profession is that the skills involved are founded upon a body of intellectual theory and research† (p. 8). Having established the importance of theory and research for a profession, Finn further explained his position by saying that â€Å". . this systematic theory is constantly being expanded by research and thinking within the profession† (p. 8). Finn was arguing that a profession conducts its own research and theory development to complement the research and theory development that it adapts/adopts from other academic areas. If educational technology was to be a true profession, it would have to conduct its own research and develop and its own theory rather than borrowing from more established disciplines like psychology.Finn (1953) evaluated the audiovisual i eld against each of the six characteristics and determined that the audiovisual i eld did not meet the most fundamental characteristic: an organized body of intellectual theory and research. â€Å"When the audiovisual i eld is measured against this characteristic . . . the conclusion must be reached that professional status has not been attained† (Finn, 1953, p. 13). h is argument was largely accepted by, and had a profound ef ect on, the leadership of the audiovisual i eld in the late 1950s and early 1960s.Finn (1953) laid a foundation that the audiovisual i eld was troubled by a â€Å"lack of theoretical direction† (p. 14). He attributed this to a â€Å"lack of content† and the absence of â€Å"intellectual meat† (p. 14) in the contemporary meetings and professional journals of the i eld. In his argument promoting the development of a theoretical base for the audiovisual i eld, Finn warned, Without a theory which produces hypotheses for research, there can be no expanding knowledge and technique.And without a constant attempt to assess practice so that the theoretical implications may b e teased out, there can be no assurance that we will ever have a theory or that our practice will make sense. (p. 14) Finn dedicated his career to rectifying this dei ciency in the i eld, and the resulting impact of his work on the 1963 dei nition is evident. Advancing an argument that audiovisual communications was a theory was an attempt to address the â€Å"lack of content† cited by Finn (1953). e Commission identii ed â€Å"the planning, production, selection, management, and utilization of both components and entire instructional systems† (Ely, ER5861X_C010. indd 263 ER5861X_C010. indd 263 8/16/07 6:24:24 PM 8/16/07 6:24:24 PM264 JANUSZEWSKI AND PERSICHITTE 1963, p. 19) as tasks performed by practitioners in the i eld directly related to Finn’s (1953) discussion of the â€Å"intellectual technique† of the audiovisual i eld—Finn’s i rst criterion for a profession. e i rst oi cial dei nition of educational technology can be viewed as an a ttempt to bring together remnants of theory, technique, other academic research bases, and history contained in the audiovisual literature, into a logical statement closing the gap on the â€Å"poverty of thought† (Finn, 1953, p. 13) that characterized the audiovisual education movement. h e evolution of audiovisual communications (and later, educational technology) as a theory began to add â€Å"intellectual meat† to audiovisual practice.By merging the audiovisual communications concept with the process orientation of the i eld into a new intellectual technique grounded in theory, the Commission strengthened the professional practice and of ered a direction for further growth as a profession. Emergence of a Process View Included among the many factors contributing to the development of the process view of educational technology were the two beliefs held by the most inl uential and prominent individuals involved with the audiovisual i eld: (1) that technology was prima rily a process (Finn, 1960b) and (2) that communication was a process (Berlo, 1960; Gerbner, 1956). e conceptual view of educational technology as a way of thinking and a process was established by the 1963 dei nition. h e intention of the Commission that produced the i rst oi cial dei nition of the i eld was â€Å"to dei ne the broader i eld of instructional technology which incorporates certain aspects of the established audiovisual i eld† (Ely, 1963, p. 3). Not unexpectedly, the 1963 dei nition drew some critique as it was applied to the emerging i eld of the 1960s and 1970s.Prominent individuals involved with audiovisual education, such as James Finn (1957; 1960a) and Charles Hoban (1962), had previously used the term technology when referring to the activities of the audiovisual i eld. Donald Ely (1973; 1982) observed that the use of the word control in the 1963 dei nition was problematic for many individuals involved with educational technology. Ely (1982) explained, â €Å"h e strong behavioral emphasis at the time seemed to call for the word ‘control’† (p. 3).He noted that the word facilitate was substituted by many professionals â€Å"to make the dei nition more palatable† (Ely, 1973, p. 52). Perhaps equally important was the desire by members of the i eld to move away from a behaviorally based psychology to a more humanistic psychology (Finn, 1967). ER5861X_C010. indd 264 ER5861X_C010. indd 264 8/16/07 6:24:24 PM 8/16/07 6:24:24 PM10. A HISTORY OF THE AECT’S DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY 265 Criticisms of the 1963 Dei nition As noted in the introduction, no one dei nition can be the dei nition, and there were criticisms of the 1963 dei nition.James Knowlton (1964), a faculty member at Indiana University, was a consultant for the 1963 Commission on Dei nition and Terminology. In an essay that reviewed the 1963 dei nition, Knowlton stated that the dei nition itself was â€Å"couched in semiotical termsâ €  (p. 4) but that the conceptual structure used in the rationale for the 1963 dei nition â€Å"was couched in learning theory terms [and] this disjunction produced some surprising anomalies† (p. 4). Knowlton’s argument was based on a need for conceptual and semantic consistency in the dei nition.Knowlton argued that failing to pair the language of the dei nition with the language of the conceptual structure in the rationale resulted in a general lack of clarity about this new concept. h is lack of clarity in turn caused confusion in the direction of research and practice in the i eld. Less than a decade later, Robert Heinich (1970) saw a need to redei ne the i eld of educational technology for two reasons. First, he was critical of the â€Å"communications† based language used in the 1963 dei nition. Heinich argued that this language was too complicated for school personnel to interpret and apply.Second, Heinich argued that the power to make many of the deci sions regarding the use of technology in schools should be transferred from the teacher to the curriculum planners. Heinich’s argument for changing the dei nition was based on both linguistic concerns and evolutionary changes in the functions of practitioners in the i eld. Heinich promoted an approach to schooling where specialists would decide when and where schools would use technology. h is position was dif erent from that which was discussed in the rationale for the 1963 dei – nition.In the rationale for the 1963 dei nition, teachers were viewed as partners of educational technologists rather than as their subordinates (Januszewski, 2001). Forces Impelling a New Dei nition Other contemporary issues emerged which began to inl uence the i eld. h e report of the Presidential Commission on Instructional Technology (1970) stated that instructional technology could be dei ned in two ways: In its more familiar sense it means the media born of the communications revolution which can be used for instructional purposes alongside the teacher, textbook and blackboard.In general, the Commission’s report follows this usage . . . the commission has had to look at the pieces that ER5861X_C010. indd 265 ER5861X_C010. indd 265 8/16/07 6:24:25 PM 8/16/07 6:24:25 PM266 JANUSZEWSKI AND PERSICHITTE make up instructional technology: television, i lms, overhead projectors, computers and the other items of â€Å"hardware and sot ware. † (p. 19) h e second and less familiar dei nition . . . (Instructional technology) . . . s a systematic way of designing, carrying out, and evaluating the total process of learning and teaching in terms of specii c objectives, based on research in human learning and communication and employing a combination of human and nonhuman resources to bring about more ef ective instruction. (Commission on Instructional Technology, 1970, p. 19) Educational technology professionals responded to this report in a special section of Audi ovisual Communications Review (1970). h e professional reviews of the government report were mixed at best. Ely (Ely et al. 1970) of Syracuse University thought that the Commission’s overall ef ort was commendable given its lot y charge. Earl Funderburk (Ely et al. , 1970) of the NEA called the recommendations a balanced program. But David Engler (Ely et al. , 1970) of the McGraw-Hill Book Company disapproved of the Commission’s ef ort to relegate the process-based dei nition of instructional technology to some â€Å"future† role. Leslie Briggs (Ely et al. , 1970) of Florida State University accused the Presidential Commission of providing a â€Å"two-headed image† of instructional technology by stressing both a hardware and a process orientation of the concept. e contributors to this special section of Audiovisual Communications Review (1970) were generally dissatisi ed with the â€Å"two-headed† orientation primarily because of the confusion it m ight cause among the potential client groups of educational technology. h ey viewed the hardware orientation favored by the Presidential Commission as a setback for the profession. It meant the unacceptable return to the â€Å"audiovisual aids† and â€Å"technology as machine† conceptions of educational technology. h is orientation also implied the de-emphasizing of research and theory.Given these professional discussions and developments, professionals in the i eld believed that a new dei nition of educational technology was necessary. The 1972 Definition By 1972, through evolution and mutual agreement, the DAVI had become the AECT. Along with the organizational change came a change to the dei nition. ER5861X_C010. indd 266 ER5861X_C010. indd 266 8/16/07 6:24:25 PM 8/16/07 6:24:25 PM10. A HISTORY OF THE AECT’S DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY 267 h e newly formed AECT dei ned the term educational technology rather than the term audiovisual communications a sEducational technology is a i eld involved in the facilitation of human learning through the systematic identii cation, development, organization and utilization of a full range of learning resources and through the management of these processes. (Ely, 1972, p. 36) As a member of the group that wrote several of the early drat s of the 1972 dei nition, Kenneth Silber (1972) was successful in including changes in many of the roles and functions of the practitioners of the i eld as part of that dei nition.Silber introduced the term learning system which combined ideas of the open classroom movement with some of the concepts of educational technology. Like Heinich’s (1970) perspective, Silber’s (1972) â€Å"learning system† (p. 19) suggested changes in the roles of the teacher and the educational technologist. Unlike Heinich, Silber supported the idea that learners should make many decisions regarding the use of educational technology themselves. Educational techno logists would produce a variety of programs and designs that learners would use or adapt to meet their own â€Å"long-range learning destination† (p. 1). Silber’s position was that the teacher should be more a â€Å"facilitator of learning† and less a â€Å"teller of information. † A Dei nition Based on h ree Concepts h ere are three concepts central to the 1972 dei nition characterizing educational technology as a i eld: a broad range of learning resources, individualized and personalized learning, and the use of the systems approach. â€Å"It is these three concepts, when synthesized into a total approach to facilitate learning, that create the uniqueness of, and thus the rationale for, the i eld† (Ely, 1972, p. 7). Examining these three concepts along with the idea of educational technology as a â€Å"i eld† is crucial to understanding the AECT’s (1972) dei nition of educational technology. It is particularly important to recognize that dif erent interpretations of these three concepts would result in dif ering conceptions of the i eld through the next three decades. h e dif erent interpretations and relative emphases of these concepts were due in large part to dif erences in educational philosophy and educational goals.Dif ering interpretations of these concepts would also have the more visible ef ect of substantially dif erent products and processes developed in the i eld. h e writers of the 1972 dei nition seemed to be aware that the major concepts could be interpreted dif erently, and they seemed to be interested ER5861X_C010. indd 267 ER5861X_C010. indd 267 8/16/07 6:24:26 PM 8/16/07 6:24:26 PM268 JANUSZEWSKI AND PERSICHITTE in including individuals with dif erent philosophical and academic backgrounds in the i eld. e writers of the 1963 dei nition and its supporting rationale seemed less concerned with accommodating divergent educational philosophies. Perhaps this was due to the fact that the 1963 dei n ition was the i rst formal attempt to dei ne educational technology. Such an under taking was formidable enough. Perhaps it was because the writers of the 1972 dei – nition paid more attention to the discussions of educational philosophy in the literature from the rest of the i eld of education.Perhaps it was because the 1963 dei nition viewed educational technology as an educational theory and, potentially, as an educational philosophy itself. Regardless, there is no doubt that by 1972, the authors of the dei nition of educational technology chose to consider educational technology a i eld of study and not as a specii c theory (Januszewski, 1995, 2001). Educational Technology as a Field h e decision to refer to educational technology as a i eld of study rather than a theory or a branch of theory had at least four results: (1) we acknowledged that there was more than one theory of educational technology, ore than one way to think about the role(s) of educational technology; ( 2) the dei nition prompted signii cant philosophical discussions by members of the profession; (3) the use of the word i eld encompassed both the â€Å"hardware† and â€Å"process† orientations of instructional technology described by the Presidential Commission (1970); and (4) this dei nition was based on the â€Å"tangible elements† (Ely, 1972) that people could observe. e 1972 dei nition essentially dei ned educational technology by role and function rather than as an abstract concept, as was the case for the 1963 dei nition, where educational technology was viewed as a theory. h e concept of â€Å"i eld† has been a thorny one for educational technologists. Like many areas of study within education, it is very dii cult to discuss educational technology without using the word i eld as a descriptor. Certainly audiovisual professionals used the term to describe the â€Å"audiovisual i eld† before the terms instructional technology or educational te chnology were ever used. e 1963 dei nition statement frequently used i eld (Ely, 1963) to move the discussion along, even though it was argued that educational technology was a theory or branch of theory. On the surface, the use of i eld seems a rather inescapable semantic problem when speaking of educational technology. But it is signii cant that the writers of the 1972 dei nition chose to use i eld rather than theory in the dei nition because the use of the word i eld established a territory. It also provided certain legitimacy to ef orts to advance ER5861X_C010. ndd 268 ER5861X_C010. indd 268 8/16/07 6:24:26 PM 8/16/07 6:24:26 PM10. A HISTORY OF THE AECT’S DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY 269 both products and processes. h e consequences of this decision were anticipated by Finn (1965), who proclaimed Properly constructed, the concept of instructional or educational technology is totally integrative. It provides a common ground for all professionals, no matter in what aspect of the i eld they are working: it permits the rational development and integration of new devices, materials, and methods as they come along. e concept is so completely viable that it will not only provide new status for our group, but will, for the i rst time, threaten the status of others [italics added]. (p. 193) Criticism of the 1972 Dei nition h e 1972 dei nition was not the object of numerous criticisms as was the 1963 dei nition, probably because it was considered only an interim dei nition (Ely, 1994). Only one such article appeared in the literature of the i eld of educational technology—a critique was written by Dennis Myers, then a graduate student at Syracuse University, and Lida Cochran, a faculty member at the University of Iowa (Myers & Cochran, 1973). e brief analysis by Myers and Cochran (1973) articulated at least i ve dif erent criticisms. First, they proposed including a statement in the rationale for the dei nition stating that students have a rig ht of access to technological delivery systems as part of their regular instruction. Including such a statement follows from Hoban’s (1968) discussion on the appropriateness of technology for instruction in a technological society. Second, Myers and Cochran argued that the 1972 dei nition statement was weakened by neglecting to include a theoretical rationale for the dei nition. is criticism, which correctly pointed out that the dei nition is lacking a unii ed theoretical direction, supported Heinich’s (1970) assertions in his philosophical view of the i eld. In a third point, Myers and Cochran (1973) criticized the limited role that the educational technologist was provided in the description of the systems approach provided in the dei nition. In a fourth point, they discussed the shortcomings of the terminology used to discuss the domains and roles in educational technology.Perhaps the most interesting point made in this analysis concerned the relationship of educati onal technology to the rest of the i eld of education. In noting the problem of dei ning the i eld by the functions performed, Myers and Cochran (1973) pointed to the importance of considering the purpose of education. ER5861X_C010. indd 269 ER5861X_C010. indd 269 8/16/07 6:24:26 PM 8/16/07 6:24:26 PM270 JANUSZEWSKI AND PERSICHITTE What is important is that certain functions get done in education. h at generalization is important because it conveys an attitude that transcends narrow professional nterests and strikes a note of community and cooperativeness, qualities which are essential to the solution of problems facing education and society. (p. 13) Here, Myers and Cochran (1973) seemed to be chastising the writers of the 1972 dei nition for being overly concerned with intellectual territory and the roles performed in the i eld of educational technology. h is particular criticism lost only a little of its sharpness when it was viewed in light of earlier comments made about the inap propriateness of the limited role assigned to educational technologists in the dei nition (Januszewski, 2001).In summary, by 1972, the name of the concept had changed from audiovisual communications to educational technology. h e organizational home for professionals in the i eld had changed name: from DAVI to AECT. h ere had been substantial changes in our schools, hardware, and other technological innovations during the nine years since the writing of the i rst dei nition. Educational technology was now identii ed as a i eld of study, open to interpretation by those who practiced within it. e 1972 dei nition rel ected these interpretations but was intended to be only a temporary measure. Almost as soon as it was published, work began on the next dei nition. The 1977 Definition In 1977, the AECT revised its dei nition of educational technology with its third version: Educational technology is a complex, integrated process, involving people, procedures, ideas, devices and organizati on, for analyzing problems and devising, implementing, evaluating and managing solutions to those problems, involved in all aspects of human learning.In educational technology, the solution to problems takes the form of all the Learning Resources that are designed and/or selected and/or utilized to bring about learning; these resources are identii ed as Messages, People, Materials, Devices, Techniques, and Settings. h e processes for analyzing problems, and devising, implementing and evaluating solutions are identii ed by the Educational Development Functions of Research h eory, Design, Production, Evaluation Selection, Logistics, Utilization, and Utilization Dissemination. h e processes of directing or coordinating one or more of hese functions are identii ed by the Educational Management Functions of Organizational Management and Personnel Management. (AECT, 1977, p. 1) ER5861X_C010. indd 270 ER5861X_C010. indd 270 8/16/07 6:24:27 PM 8/16/07 6:24:27 PM10. A HISTORY OF THE AECTâ₠¬â„¢S DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY 271 h e Dei nition of Educational Technology (AECT, 1977) was a 169-page book intended to accomplish two things: (a) systematically analyze the complex ideas and concepts that were used in the i eld of educational technology, and (b) show how these concepts and ideas related to one another (Wallington, 1977). is publication included the dei nition of educational technology (which comprises 16 pages of the text), a history of the i eld, a rationale for the dei nition, a theoretical framework for the dei nition, a discussion of the practical application of the intellectual technique of the i eld, the code of ethics of the professional organization, and a glossary of terms related to the dei nition. Educational Versus Instructional Technology h e conceptual dif erence between the terms educational technology and instructional technology constituted a large portion of the analysis of this book.Understanding how the authors of the 1977 dei niti on viewed the relationship of instructional technology to educational technology is essential to understanding the 1977 dei nition and its theoretical framework. h e basic premise of this distinction was that instructional technology was to educational technology as instruction was to education. h e reasoning was that since instruction was considered a subset of education then instructional technology was a subset of educational technology (AECT, 1977). For example, the concept of educational technology was involved in the solution of problems in â€Å"all aspects of human learning† (p. ). h e concept of instructional technology was involved in the solution of problems where â€Å"learning is purposive and controlled† (p. 3). Educational Technology as a Process Two other complex conceptual developments were also undertaken by the authors of the 1977 dei nition, which were interrelated. First, the 1977 dei – nition of educational technology was called a â€Å"pr ocess† (AECT, 1977, p. 1). h e authors intended the term process to connote the idea that educational technology could be viewed as a theory, a i eld, or a profession.Second, the systems concept was infused throughout the entire dei nition statement and in all the major supporting concepts for the dei nition in both its descriptive and prescriptive senses. h e authors of the 1977 dei nition connected these two conceptual developments by saying that the use of the systems concept was a process (AECT, 1977). As one of the three major supporting concepts for the 1972 dei nition of educational technology, the systems approach had become the basis for the ER5861X_C010. ndd 271 ER5861X_C010. indd 271 8/16/07 6:24:27 PM 8/16/07 6:24:27 PM272 JANUSZEWSKI AND PERSICHITTE dei nition itself by 1977. h rough their ef orts to reinforce the process conception of educational technology, the leadership of the i eld now assumed that all of the major supporting concepts of the dei nition were t ied to, or should be viewed in light of, the systems approach. h e three major supporting concepts of the 1977 dei nition were learning resources, management, and development.Learning resources were any resources utilized in educational systems; a descriptive use of the systems concept the writers of the 1977 dei nition called â€Å"resources by utilization. † Authors called the resources specii cally designed for instructional purposes, a prescriptive use of the systems approach, â€Å"resources by design† or â€Å"instructional system components† (AECT, 1977). Like the concept of learning resources, management could be used in a descriptive fashion to describe administrative systems or in a prescriptive way to prescribe action. e concept of management was ot en used as a metaphor for the systems approach in education (Heinich, 1970). h e term instructional development was frequently used to mean the â€Å"systems approach to instructional development† o r â€Å"instructional systems development† (Twelker et al. , 1972). h e fact that the management view of the systems approach to instruction ot en included an instructional development process and the fact that instructional development models frequently included management as a task to be completed in the systems pproach to instructional development further intertwined the systems concept with the process view of educational technology. h ese descriptive and prescriptive interpretations of the 1977 dei nition would inl uence future dei nitions. As previously noted, the predilection that educational technology was a process was not new when the 1977 dei nition was written. Process was one of the three major supporting concepts incorporated into the rationale of the 1963 dei nition (Ely, 1963).Believing that educational technology was a process provided one of the major reasons that the leadership of the profession tended to reject the report of the Presidential Commission on Instructional Technology (1970), which focused heavily on the hardware of the i eld in its i rst dei nition of instructional technology. h e authors of the 1977 dei nition, who purposefully used the term process to develop a systematic and congruent scheme for the concept of educational technology, said, h e dei nition presented here dei nes the theory, the i eld, and profession as congruent. is occurs because the dei nition of the i eld of educational technology is directly derived from, and includes, the theory of educational technology, and the profession of educational technology is directly ER5861X_C010. indd 272 ER5861X_C010. indd 272 8/16/07 6:24:28 PM 8/16/07 6:24:28 PM10. A HISTORY OF THE AECT’S DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY 273 derived from, and includes, the i eld of educational technology. (AECT, 1977, p. 135) In the end, the ef ort to demonstrate the congruence of the major concepts involved with educational technology created as many issues for the i eld as it resolved.Five immediate advantages for describing educational technology as a process were (1) the use of the term process reinforced the primacy of the process view of educational technology over the product view of educational technology. h e process view had been outlined in the 1963 dei nition statement, but the report of the Presidential Commission on Instructional Technology (1970) appeared to reverse this emphasis. (2) h e term process would ground the dei nition of educational technology in the activities of its practitioners, activities that could be directly observed and verii ed. 3) h e term process could be used to describe educational technology as a theory, a i eld, or a profession. (4) h e term process allowed the further evolution of thought and research around the concept of systems. Finally, (5) an organized process implies the use of research and theory, which would reinforce the idea that educational technology was a profession. Educational Technology as F ield, h eory, or Profession h e authors of the 1977 dei nition argued that educational technology could be thought of â€Å"in three dif erent ways—as a theoretical construct, as a i eld, and as a profession† (AECT, 1977, p. 7). h ey continued, â€Å"None of the foregoing perspectives is more correct or better than the others. Each is a different way of thinking about the same thing† (p. 18). h e writers of the 1977 dei nition argued that the theoretical construct, the i eld, and the profession were all process based. h e term process described and connected all three of these perspectives of educational technology with a single word. Educational technology had been called a theory in the 1963 dei nition (Ely, 1963), and it had been called a i eld in the 1972 dei nition (Ely, 1972).New to the 1977 dei nition was the argument that educational technology was also a profession. Prior to the publication of the 1977 dei nition, the term profession was used in passing as it related to educational technology. Since Finn (1953) had argued that the i eld had not yet reached professional status, members of the i eld (e. g. , Silber, 1970) had made few attempts to analyze educational technology systematically as a profession. Using Finn’s criteria, the writers of the 1977 dei nition argued that educational technology was now a profession.Depending upon the interpretation and application of the systems concept, educational technology could be explained as a theory, a i eld, or a profession ER5861X_C010. indd 273 ER5861X_C010. indd 273 8/16/07 6:24:28 PM 8/16/07 6:24:28 PM274 JANUSZEWSKI AND PERSICHITTE in the 1977 dei nition. h e impact of using the term process to describe educational technology as a theory, a i eld, or a profession hinged on these dif ering interpretations of the systems approach, once again prompting discussions and philosophical debates among prominent educational technologists. e period of the 1980s was not so focused on c riticism of the 1977 dei nition as much as characterized by broad academic wrangling over the interpretation and application of the dei nition (Januszewski, 1995, 2001). h e three major supporting concepts of the 1977 dei nition—learning resources, management, and development—could also be interpreted dif erently based on divergent conceptions of the systems approach. h e dif erent interpretations of learning resources, management, and development also provided the writers of the 1977 dei nition with a rationale to distinguish between educational technology and instructional technology.The 1994 Definition By 1994, the dei nition of educational technology had nearly come full circle. h e dei nition that was produced in 1994 read, â€Å"Instructional technology is the theory and practice of design, development, utilization, management, and evaluation of processes and resources for learning† (Seels & Richey, 1994, p. 1). h ere are no new concepts included in the 19 94 dei nition. What was new was the identii cation of multiple theoretical and conceptual issues in the explanation of the dei nition. e 1994 dei nition was intended to be much less complex than the 1977 dei nition. h e extent to which the writers were successful can be judged in part by reviewing the criticisms of the 1977 dei nition. h e attempt by the writers of the 1977 dei nition to show the congruence of educational technology and instructional technology revealed a conceptual problem for the i eld. h e dei nition of educational technology, which was concerned with â€Å"all aspects of human learning† (AECT, 1977, p. ), had become so broad that some individuals in the i eld of education pointed out that there was no dif erence between educational technology and curriculum, school administration, or teaching methods (Ely, 1982). Saettler (1990) wryly pointed out that the dei nition had become everything to everybody, and he dubbed the 1977 dei nition the â€Å"omnibus d ei nition. † Logical Problems h ere were also serious l aws in the reasoning and the conceptual interpretations used in the theoretical framework and rationale for the 1977 dei nition of educational technology.Establishing the dif erence between ER5861X_C010. indd 274 ER5861X_C010. indd 274 8/16/07 6:24:28 PM 8/16/07 6:24:28 PM10. A HISTORY OF THE AECT’S DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY 275 education and instruction, the authors argued, â€Å"Education, then, includes two classes of processes not included in instruction: those processes related to the administration of instruction . . . and those processes related to situations in which learning occurs when it is not deliberately managed† (AECT, 1977, p. 56).An example of learning not deliberately managed given in the discussion was â€Å"incidental learning† (p. 56). It was reasonable for the authors to argue that nondeliberately managed learning and/or incidental learning was part of the concept of education (Januszewski, 1997). However, the dei nitions of â€Å"technology† by Galbraith (1967), Hoban (1962), and Finn (1960a, 1965), which were used by the authors of the 1977 dei nition to discuss the term technology as it related to the concept of educational technology, all included the ideas of organization, management, and control (AECT, 1977). e writers of the 1977 dei nition considered organization, management, and control critical characteristics of technology; but these ideas were contrary to the idea of â€Å"incidental learning† and â€Å"learning that was not deliberately managed. † Education, at least as it was distinguished from instruction included in the rationale of the 1977 dei nition, did not seem compatible with technology. It is dii cult to conceive of a technology of the incidental, unmanaged, and unintended. e gains made in the organization of the framework of the concept of educational technology by distinguishing between education and instruction were lost when education was paired with technology (Januszewski, Butler, & Yeaman, 1996). h eory or theoretical construct. h e relationship of educational technology to â€Å"theory† presented another problem in the discussion of educational technology presented in the 1977 dei nition and rationale. ere are three ways in which the concept of theory is related to educational technology in the 1977 dei nition statement: (1) the thought that educational technology was a â€Å"theoretical construct† (AECT, 1977, pp. 18, 20, 24); (2) the notion that educational technology itself was â€Å"a theory† (AECT, 1977, pp. 2, 135, 138); and (3) that the â€Å"dei nition of educational technology was a theory† (AECT, 1977, pp. 4, 20, 134). To some degree, all three of these discussions of theory and educational technology are accurate, but they cannot be used interchangeably as they are in the 1977 dei nition.A theoretical construct is not the same as a t heory; nor is it the case, that because a dei nition of a concept is a theory, the concept itself a theory. h e word theory has been used in at least four ways in the literature of the i eld of education: (1) the â€Å"law like† theory of the hard sciences; (2) theories that are supported by statistical evidence; (3) theories that identify variables that inl uence the i eld of study; and (4) theory as a systematic analysis of a set of related concepts (Kliebard, 1977). ER5861X_C010. indd 275 ER5861X_C010. ndd 275 8/16/07 6:24:29 PM 8/16/07 6:24:29 PM276 JANUSZEWSKI AND PERSICHITTE h e fourth sense of theory is of interest to this analysis of the 1977 dei nition of educational technology. Systematic analyses of any abstract concept can be said to be theories of that concept. Referring to educational technology as a theoretical construct, or a theory, or calling the dei nition of educational technology a theory may be accurate if the construct or theory includes a systematic an alysis of the concept of educational technology. e writers of the 1977 dei nition provided criteria for â€Å"theory† that was not theory as a systematic analysis of related concepts. h e 1977 view of theory was an attempt to establish general principles and predict outcomes (AECT, 1977). h is approach was substantially dif erent from the usage of the word theory in the 1963 dei nition statement. Further confusion arises because of the writers’ claim that educational technology did indeed meet the criteria for being a predictive theory (Januszewski, 1995, 2001).Certainly â€Å"educational technology† is a theoretical construct. â€Å"Educational technology† may also be considered a theory depending on what exactly is intended by the word theory. The 1977 definition of educational technology is a theory about the abstract concept of â€Å"educational technology. † But because the definition of the concept of educational technology may be a theory of educational technology, it does not necessarily follow that the concept of educational technology is itself a theory.This is similar to saying that a definition of the concept of democracy may be a theory of democracy but that the concept of democracy itself is not a theory. Few involved in the field of educational technology adopted this systematic treatment of the concepts provided in the 1977 definition. Many in the field adopted only portions of the definition (e. g. , Gustafson, 1981). Certain parts of the definition and the supporting statements were cited by scholars in order to make erudite points about the field of educational technology (e. . , Romiszowski, 1981), but a reading of the literature of the field during this era reveals that the whole of the conceptual framework provided in the 1977 definition, specifically the part intended to distinguish educational technology from instructional technology, was not widely accepted by the professionals in the field of educati onal technology (Seels & Richey, 1994). This lack of acceptance led to the label changes in the 1994 definition. Distinguishing between educational and instructional. e ef ort to revise the 1977 dei nition addressed some of the conceptual incongruencies of previous dei nitions. h e i rst of these was the dif erence between educational and instructional technology. Unlike the writers of the 1977 dei nition, who sought to distinguish between educational technology and instructional technology, ER5861X_C010. indd 276 ER5861X_C010. indd 276 8/16/07 6:24:29 PM 8/16/07 6:24:29 PM10. A HISTORY OF THE AECT’S DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY 277 the authors of the 1994 dei nition acknowledged that this problem had no easy answer. ey admitted, â€Å"At present the terms ‘Educational Technology’ and ‘Instructional Technology’ are used interchangeably by most professionals in the i eld† (p. 5). But they argued, Because the term ‘Instructional T echnology’ (a) is more commonly used today in the United States, (b) encompasses many practice settings, (c) describes more precisely the function of technology in education, and (d) allows for an emphasis on both instruction and learning in the same dei nitional sentence, the term ‘Instructional Technology’ is used in the 1994 dei nition, but the two terms are considered synonymous. Seels & Richey, 1994, p. 5) With that, the oi cial label of the i eld was changed from â€Å"educational technology† to â€Å"instructional technology,† although it was quite acceptable to continue to use the term educational technology. Underlying Assumptions Seels and Richey (1994) did dif erentiate the 1994 dei nition from previous dei nitions by identifying and analyzing some of the assumptions that underlie this dei nition. Identii ed assumptions included Instructional technology has evolved from a movement to a i eld and profession.Since a profession is concerned with a knowledge base, the 1994 dei nition must identify and emphasize instructional technology as a i eld of study as well as practice (p. 2). A revised dei nition of the i eld should encompass those areas of concern to practitioners and scholars. h ese areas are the domains of the i eld (p. 2). Both process and product are of vital importance to the i eld and need to be rel ected in the dei nition (p. 2). Subtleties not clearly understood or recognized by the typical Instructional Technology professional should be removed from the dei nition and its more extended explanation (p. ). It is assumed that both research and practice in the i eld are carried out in conformity with ethical norms of the profession (p. 3). Instructional technology is characterized by ef ectiveness and ei – ciency (p. 3). h e concept of systematic is implicit in the 1994 dei nition because the domains are equivalent to the systematic process for developing instruction (p. 8). †¢ †¢ †¢ à ¢â‚¬ ¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ ER5861X_C010. indd 277 ER5861X_C010. indd 277 8/16/07 6:24:29 PM 8/16/07 6:24:29 PM278 JANUSZEWSKI AND PERSICHITTE h e inclusion of these ssumptions in the analysis and explanation accompanying the 1994 dei nition allowed for the publication of a dei nition that was much more â€Å"economical† than were previous dei nition ef orts. h eory and Practice h e authors of the 1994 dei nition stated that the dei nition was composed of four components: (a) theory and practice; (b) design, development, utilization, management and evaluation; (c) processes and resources; and (d) learning. h ese components were not necessarily new; but in this dei nition, they were reorganized, simplii ed, and connected, in a way making the 1994 dei nition unique. e 1994 dei nition used the phrasing included in the 1963 dei nition when it called instructional technology â€Å"the theory and practice of. † And the authors argued, â€Å"A profession must have a knowl edge base that supports practice† (Seels & Richey, 1994, p. 9). h e authors used a simple but rather clear notion that â€Å"theory consists of the concepts, constructs, principles, and propositions that contribute to the body of knowledge† and that â€Å"practice is the application of the knowledge† (p. 11).In so doing, the authors cleared up the problem of the meaning of theory that they had inherited from the writers of the 1977 dei nition, a dei nition of theory that had been too precise. Domains h e concepts (or â€Å"domains† of the 1994 dei nition) of design, development, utilization, management, and evaluation comprise the accepted knowledge base of the i eld today as evidenced by the Standards for the Accreditation of School Media Specialist and Educational Technology Specialist Programs (AECT, 2000).When these concepts are taken together and conducted in sequential order, they are the same as the stages of â€Å"development† described in t he 1977 dei nition. h ese concepts are directly traceable to the idea of educational engineering developed by W. W. Charters (1945). It is important to realize that the authors of the 1994 dei nition did not intend that practitioners of educational technology perform all of these tasks in the sequential order. Specializing in or focusing on one of these tasks would include broad practitioners in the i eld (Seels & Richey, 1994).Seels and Richey (1994) provided dei nitions of processes and resources: â€Å"A process is a series of operations or activities directed towards a particular end† (p. 12). â€Å"Resources are sources of support for learning, including support systems and instructional materials and environments† (p. 12). h ese descriptions allowed the authors to (a) use process to reinforce notions of ER5861X_C010. indd 278 ER5861X_C010. indd 278 8/16/07 6:24:30 PM 8/16/07 6:24:30 PM10.A HISTORY OF THE AECT’S DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY 279 eng ineering and science in instruction; (b) maintain the distinction between resources as things and processes; and (c) be consistent with terminology used in all three previous dei nitions. h e concept of learning was not new to the 1994 dei nition; however, the dei nition of learning intended by the authors was new. In previous dei nitions, the term learning was intended to connote a change in behavior such as advocated by Tyler (1950). But the authors of the 1994 dei nition wanted to move away from a strong behaviorist orientation. ey argued, â€Å"In this dei nition learning refers to the ‘relatively permanent change in a person’s knowledge or behavior due to experience’† (Mayer, 1982, as cited in Seels & Richey, 1994, p. 12). Including the phrase â€Å"due to experience† also aided in moving away from causal connections and allowed for incidental learning. h is interpretation signaled the acceptance of a dif erent kind of science in education: one less grounded on prediction and control and more interested in applying other theoretical and research principles to the instructional process.Criticism of the 1994 Dei nition h e primary criticism of the 1994 dei nition is that instructional technology appeared to look too much like the systems approach to instructional development while changes in the practice of the i eld (e. g. , constructivistbased initiatives and the general acceptance of computer innovations in classroom methodologies) made the 1994 dei nition too restrictive for mainstream teachers and school administrators as well as researchers and scholars. h ese criticisms and further evolution of the research and practice in the i eld led to a need for reconsideration and evision of this dei nition at er more than a decade of use. The Current Definition h e task force empanelled by AECT to review the 1994 dei nition wrestled with the historical issues presented here and with other issues of perception, changing employm ent and training expectations, semantics, and a strong desire to develop a dei nition that both served to include the broad variety of practitioners in this i eld and one which would prompt renewed attention to the theory and research so critical to our continued contributions to learning.In a sense, we are not so far removed in this century from the professional goal stated in the 1963 dei nition: ER5861X_C010. indd 279 ER5861X_C010. indd 279 8/16/07 6:24:30 PM 8/16/07 6:24:30 PM280 JANUSZEWSKI AND PERSICHITTE It is the responsibility of educational leaders to respond intelligently to technological change . . . If the DAVI membership is to support the leadership in such bold steps, dei nition and terminology as a basis for direction of professional growth is a prime prerequisite . . Now that the i eld of audiovisual communications, the largest single segment of the growing technology of instruction, has reached the point of decision making, we i nd ourselves in the same quandary ot her i elds have discovered when they have attempted to dei ne their i elds: i. e. , dei nition exists at various levels of understanding but no one dei nition can be the dei nition. (Ely, 1963, pp. 16–18)And so, the latest in the line of dei nitions of educational technology: â€Å"Educational technology is the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using, and managing appropriate technological processes and resources. † References Association for Educational Communications and Technology. (1972). h e i eld of educational technology: A statement of dei nition. Audiovisual Instruction, 17, 36–43. Association for Educational Communications and Technology. (1977). h e dei nition of educational technology. 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ER5861X_C010. indd 280 ER5861X_C010. indd 280 8/16/07 6:24:31 PM 8/16/07 6:24:31 PM10. A HISTORY OF THE AECT’S DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY 281 Ely, D. P. (1982). h e dei nition of educational technology: An emerging stability.Educational Considerations, 10(2), 24. Ely, D. P. (1994). Personal conversations. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University. Ely, D. P. , Funderburk, E. , Briggs, L. , Engler, D. , Dietrich, J. , Davis, R. , et al. (1970). Comments on the report of the Commission on Instructional Technology. Audiovisual Communications Review, 18(3), 306–326. Finn, J. D. (1953). Professionalizing the audiovisual i eld. Audiovisual Communications Review, 1(1), 617. Finn, J. D. (1957). Automation and education: General aspects. Audiovisual Communications Review, 5(1), 343–360. Finn, J. D. (1960a).Automation and education: A new theory for instructional technology. Audiovisual Communications Review, 8(1), 526. Finn, J. D. (1960b). 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Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the International Visual Literacy Association, Cheyenne, Wyoming. Kliebard, H. M. (1977). Curriculum theory: Give me a â€Å"for instance. † Curriculum Inquiry, 6(4), 257–269. Knowlton, J. Q. (1964). A conceptual scheme for the audiovisual i eld. Bulletin of the School of Education, Indiana University, 40(3). Myers, D. C. & Cochran, L. M. (1973). Statement of dei nition: A response. Audiovisual Instruction, 18(5), 11–13. Romiszowski, A. J. (1981). Designing instructional systems. London: Kogan Page. Saettler, P. (1990). h e evolution of American educational technology. Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited, Inc. Seels, B. , & Richey, R. (1994). Instructional technology: h e dei nition and domains of the i eld. Washington, DC: AECT Press. Silber, K. (1970). What i eld are we in, anyhow? Audiovisual Instruction, 15(5), 21–24. Silber, K. (1972). h e learning system. Audiovisual Instruction, 17(7), 10–27.Twelker, P. A. , Urbach, F. D. , & Buck, J. E. (1972). h e systematic development of instruction: An overview and basic guide to t